21 5 190 http://books.altspu.ru/files/original/77/112/_[650].png e2e88ad14b3c0cb18c005c79615f597d http://books.altspu.ru/files/original/77/112/kozlova[mini].pdf e07d5450154362afe1abc10ef5969710 PDF Text Text Содержание �Содержание ОБ ИЗДАНИИ Основной титульный экран Дополнительный титульный экран непериодического издания – 1 Дополнительный титульный экран непериодического издания – 2 �Содержание МИНИСТЕРСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ И НАУКИ РОССИЙСКОЙ ФЕДЕРАЦИИ Федеральное государственное бюджетное образовательное учреждение высшего образования «Алтайский государственный педагогический университет» (ФГБОУ ВО « АлтГПУ» ) Л.А. КОЗЛОВА, Л.Л. ШЕВЧЕНКО FURTHER STEPS IN TEXT ANALYSIS Учебное пособие Барнаул ФГБОУ ВО « АлтГПУ» 2018 Об издании - 1, 2, 3. ISBN 978-5-88210-915-7 �Содержание УДК 811.111(075) ББК 81.432.1я73 К592 Козлова, Л.А. Further steps in text analysis [Электронный ресурс] : учебное пособие / Л.А. Козлова, Л.Л. Шевченко. – Барнаул : АлтГПУ, 2018. – Систем. требования: PC не ниже класса Intel Celeron 2 ГГц ; 512 Мb RAM ; Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 ; Adobe Acrobat Reader ; SVGA монитор с разрешением 1024х768 ; мышь. ISBN 978-5-88210-915-7 Рецензенты: Рогозина Ирина Владимировна, доктор филологических наук, профессор (Алтайский государственный технический университет им. И.И. Ползунова); Кочешкова Ирина Юрьевна, кандидат филологических наук, доцент (Алтайский государственный педагогический университет) Настоящее пособие предназначено для занятий со студентами V курса по лингвостилистическому анализу и интерпретации текстов различных жанров: эссе, биографии, автобиографии, короткого рассказа, публичной речи, научного текста и поэзии. С учетом того, что начальные навыки лингвостилистического анализа закладываются на IV курсе, данное пособие ставит своей целью расширение знаний и закрепление навыков интерпретации текстов различных жанров, выявление жанровых особенностей текста и тех стилистических приемов, которые формируют в своей совокупности идиостиль конкретного автора. Рекомендовано к изданию редакционно-издательским советом АлтГПУ 21.02.2018 г. Текстовое (символьное) электронное издание. Системные требования: PC не ниже класса Intel Celeron 2 ГГц ; 512 Мb RAM ; Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 ; Adobe Acrobat Reader ; SVGA монитор с разрешением 1024х768 ; мышь. Об издании - 1, 2, 3. �Содержание Электронное издание создано при использовании программного обеспечения Sunrav BookOffice. Объём издания - 9 012 КБ. Дата подписания к использованию: 21.05.2018 Федеральное государственное бюджетное образовательное учреждение высшего образования «Алтайский государственный педагогический университет» (ФГБОУ ВО «АлтГПУ») ул. Молодежная, 55, г. Барнаул, 656031 Тел. (385-2) 36-82-71, факс (385-2) 24-18-72 е-mail: rector@altspu.ru, http://www.altspu.ru Об издании - 1, 2, 3. �Содержание СОДЕРЖАНИЕ Introduction PART I. THE LANGUAGE OF NONFICTION: A LITERARY ESSAY The Origin and the Main Types of Essays Virginia Woolf. The Common Reader. How Should One Read a Book Topics for the Essay Based on “How Should One Read a Book” A Few Hints on Essay Writing Lewis Carroll by Virginia Woolf St. Jean de Crevecoeur. What is an American? Topics for the Argumentative Essay Based on “What is an American?” Samples of Student’s Essays What Is a Japanese. The Merits and Demerits of Stereotypes Where Bread Is There’s A Fatherland What Is An Ossetian Or Blood Is Thicker Than Water Ralph Waldo Emerson. Self-Reliance Laurie Lee. Appetite Biography and Autobiography as Nonfiction Genres Benjamin Franklin. Autobiography Evelyn Waugh. General Conversation: Myself Margaret Atwood. Great Unexpectations Essays for Self-Guided Analysis H.G. Wells. Ellis Island Carl Sandburg. A Lincoln Preface Wystan Hugh Auden. Postscript: The Almighty Dollar Susan Sontag. Beauty PART II. THE LANGUAGE OF PUBLIC SPEAKING The Main Features of Publicistic Style Analysing Speeches Analysing Political Speeches Donald Trump. The Crossroads In Our History Theodore Roosevelt. The Man with the Muck-rake �Содержание Speeches for Self-Guided Analysis Margaret Thatcher. Iron Lady Speech Donald Trump. Inaugural Address Sheryl Sandberg. Address to the Class of 2012 at HBS PART III. THE LANGUAGE OF SCIENCE The Main Features of Scientific Style Anna Wierzbicka. English: Meaning and Culture. English as a Cultural Universe Steven Arthur Pinker. The Language Instinct. How the Mind Creates Language Scientific Texts for Self-Guided Analysis Steven Pinker. The Language Instinct. How the Mind Creates language Geoffrey Leech. Semantics. The Study of Meaning Robin Lakoff. You Are What You Say PART IV. THE LANGUAGE OF FICTION: A SHORT STORY The Art of Reading and Analysing a Story James Joyce. Eveline Oscar Wilde. The Model Millionaire Katherine Mansfield. A Cup of Tea Somerset Maugham. The Happy Man O. Henry. The Cop and the Anthem Ernest Hemingway. Cat in the Rain Stories for Self-Guided Analysis Katherine Mansfield. Honeymoon Kate Chopin. The Story of an Hour Ray Bradbury. In a Season of Calm Weather Peter Mayle. The Genetic Effects of Two Thousand Years of Foie Gras PART V. THE LANGUAGE OF POETRY Analysing Poetry Sir Walter Raleigh. Even Such Is Time John Donne. Holy Sonnets. Sonnet XIII Robert Herrick. To the Virgins, to Make Much of Time William Blake. A Poison Tree �Содержание Edgar Allan Poe. Alone Emily Dickinson. There is no Frigate like a Book Christina Rossetti. Up-hill William Butler Yeats. For Anne Gregory Edwin Arlington Robinson. Richard Cory Robert Frost. Gathering Leaves Edward Estlin Commings. Pity this Busy Monster, Manunkind Dylan Thomas. Do Not Go Gentle Into That Good Night Dorothy Parker. Frustration Allen Ginsberg. A Supermarket in California Tom Clark. Poem Poems for Self-Guided Analysis Selected Bibliography �Содержание INTRODUCTION As we have stated earlier (see the introduction to the manual for 4th year students) there are various kinds and purposes of reading: we may read for information, for relaxation etc. Analytical reading is a more complex intellectual activity and it requires an attentive and inquisitive reader. The main aim of analytical reading is to understand the message of the author, to get aesthetic pleasure and to be able to discuss the merits and demerits of a book, a story or a poem. In this type of reading the reader starts a dialogue with the author, accepting or rejecting his/her views and aesthetic principles. But to be able to carry on such a dialogue you have to really understand the author, to achieve equality with him (according to Raphael, to understand an author is to become equal to him). Francis Bacon once remarked that “some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be digested and chewed.” Reading a text analytically and being able to carry on a dialogue with the author actually means chewing and digesting the text we analyze. Yet it does not mean that we just share every idea expressed by the author and fully dissolve ourselves in the author. Stating that reading a text we start a dialogue with the author, we must keep in mind that both the participants of this dialogue are equal. The author embodied his/her ideas in the material form of the text and the reader “collects”, or extracts this idea by carrying out a holistic analysis of lingual, pragmatic, cultural and cognitive parameters of the text. A really talented text (“an open text” as Umberto Eco calls it) potentially has a possibility of multiple, or unlimited interpretation. Each reader brings to the interpretation his/her own social, economic, aesthetic, ethical, religious and political background. In other words, our personal history, even our present mood may influence our responses and so makes each reading to some extent our own. Thus the process of interpretation can be no less creative than the text production, because it presupposes the solution of an intellectual problem – the reconstruction of meaning which is sometimes not expressed explicitly, but is hidden and requires reconstruction by means of inference. Of course, there are limits to the degree of our freedom. The eminent Russian scholar Georgy Bogin said that there exist certain boundaries in the multiplicity of interpretation, beyond which appears the danger of distortion of the text meaning or the inadequacy of understanding which usually occurs because of the lack of necessary knowledge and convincing argumentation based on knowledge. It’s never enough just to say: “It’s so just because I think soc” or “It’s my personal opinion”. Our opinion must be very well grounded and based on the knowledge of the topic, only then will it sound convincing. The famous Russian poet Samuil Marshak said that each talented writer requires a talented reader. We are hopeful that you will prove to be sophisticated and talented readers and therefore able to carry on a successful dialogue with the authors and we wish you success in this challenging work. �Содержание PART I. THE LANGUAGE OF NONFICTION: A LITERARY ESSAY The Origin and the Main Types of Essays Virginia Woolf. The Common Reader. How Should One Read a Book Topics for the Essay Based on “How Should One Read a Book” A Few Hints on Essay Writing Lewis Carroll by Virginia Woolf St. Jean de Crevecoeur. What is an American? Topics for the Argumentative Essay Based on “What is an American?” Samples of Student’s Essays What Is a Japanese. The Merits and Demerits of Stereotypes Where Bread Is There’s A Fatherland What Is An Ossetian Or Blood Is Thicker Than Water Ralph Waldo Emerson. Self-Reliance Laurie Lee. Appetite Biography and Autobiography as Nonfiction Genres Benjamin Franklin. Autobiography Evelyn Waugh. General Conversation: Myself Margaret Atwood. Great Unexpectations Essays for Self-Guided Analysis H.G. Wells. Ellis Island Carl Sandburg. A Lincoln Preface Wystan Hugh Auden. Postscript: The Almighty Dollar Susan Sontag. Beauty �Содержание The Origin and the Main Types of Essays The word essay derives from the French infinitive essayer, “to try” or “to attempt”. In English essay first meant “a trial” or “an attempt”, and this is still an alternative meaning. The Frenchman Michel de Montaigne (1533–1592) was the first author to describe his work as essays; he used the term to characterize these as “attempts” to put his thoughts adequately into writing. Inspired in particular by the works of Plutarch, a translation of whose Oeuvres morales (Moral works) into French had just been published by Jacques Amyot, Montaigne began to compose his essays in 1572; the first edition, entitled Essais, was published in two volumes in 1580. For the rest of his life he continued revising previously published essays and composing new ones. Francis Bacon’s essays, published in book form in 1597, 1612, and 1625, were the first works in English that described themselves as essays. Ben Jonson first used the word essayist in English in 1609, according to the Oxford English Dictionary. Other English essayists included Robert Burton (1577–1640) and Sir Thomas Browne (1605–1682). In Italy, Baldassare Castiglione wrote about courtly manners in his essay Il libro del cortegiano. In the 1600s, the Jesuit Baltasar Gracián wrote about the theme of wisdom. During the Age of Enlightenment, essays were a favoured tool of polemicists who aimed at convincing readers of their position. In the 1700s and 1800s, Edmund Burke and Samuel Taylor Coleridge wrote essays for the general public. In the 20th century, a number of essayists tried to explain the new movements in art and culture by using essays (e.g., T.S. Eliot). Whereas some essayists used essays for strident political themes, Robert Louis Stevenson and Willa Cather wrote lighter essays. Virginia Woolf, Edmund Wilson, and Charles du Bos wrote literary criticism essays. An essay has been defined in a variety of ways. I.R. Galperin defines it as literary composition of moderate length on philosophical, social, aesthetic or literary subject. He also points out that the most obvious characteristics of the essay is personality in the treatment of the subject and naturalness of expression. Following Montaigne’s original idea of an essay as an attempt to “to give something a try”, we may define an essay as a careful and considered piece of writing, a record of the mind in the act of thinking, which is characterized by an informal style and in which a writer presents his/her personal opinion on a certain political, social, ethical or literary issue. It is difficult to define the genre into which essays fall. Aldous Huxley, a leading essayist, gives guidance on the subject. He notes that “like the novel, the essay is a literary device for saying almost everything about almost anything, usually on a certain topic. By tradition, almost by definition, the essay is a short piece, and it is therefore impossible to give all things full play within the limits of a single essay.” He points out that “a collection of essays can cover almost as much ground, and cover it almost as thoroughly, as can a long novel.” Huxley argues that “essays belong to a literary species whose extreme variability can be studied most effectively within a three-poled frame of reference.” The three poles are: �Содержание • Personal and the autobiographical essays: these use “fragments of reflective autobiography” to “look at the world through the keyhole of anecdote and description.” • Objective and factual: in these essays, the authors “do not speak directly of themselves, but turn their attention outward to some literary or scientific or political theme.” • Abstract-universal: these essays “make the best...of all the three worlds in which it is possible for the essay to exist.” According to I.R. Galperin, this literary genre has definite lingual traits which shape it as a variety of publicistic style. Different writers and publicists specialize in different kinds of essay. According to their form and style, essays may be classified into several types: narrative, descriptive, persuasive, and argumentative. These types are used by a range of authors, including university students and professional essayists. A narrative essay recounts true events. It uses tools such as flashbacks, flash-forwards, and transitions that often build to a climax. The focus of a narrative is the plot. When creating a narrative, authors must determine their purpose, consider their audience, establish their point of view, use dialogue, and organize the narrative. A narrative is usually arranged chronologically. A descriptive essay describes people, places, or things. Descriptive writing is characterized by sensory details, which appeal to the physical senses, and details that appeal to a reader’s emotional, physical, or intellectual sensibilities. Determining the purpose, considering the audience, creating a dominant impression, using descriptive language, and organizing the description are the rhetorical choices to be considered when using a description. A description is usually arranged spatially but can also be chronological or emphatic. The focus of a description is the scene. Description uses tools such as denotative language, connotative language, figurative language, metaphor, and simile to arrive at a dominant impression. A persuasive essay aims to convince the reader of the author’s opinion or, perhaps, to rouse the reader to action. Persuasive writing is characterized by strong arguments aimed at convincing the reader by the use of various means of manuipulating the reader’s consciousness. This type of essays is characteristic of political discourse. An argumentative essay is a type in which the author addresses a certain issue and offers various approaches to it, presenting different viewpoints, considering all the pros and cons and supplying different arguments for and against various viewpoints. An effective essay often combines features of different types. �Содержание Virginia Woolf (1882–1941) Virginia Woolf (1882–1941) was an English novelist, essayist, diarist, publisher, feminist, and writer of short stories, regarded as one of the foremost modernist literary figures of the twentieth century. Virginia Woolf was born Adeline Virginia Stephen in London in 1882. Her mother, a famous beauty, was born in India and later moved to England with her mother, where she served as a model for Pre-Raphaelite painters. Her father, Sir Leslie Stephen, was a notable author, critic and mountaineer. The young Virginia was educated by her parents in their literate and well-connected household. Sir Leslie Stephen’s eminence as an editor, critic, and biographer, and his connection to William Thackeray (he was the widower of Thackeray’s youngest daughter), meant that his children were raised in an environment filled with the influences of Victorian literary society. There was an immense library at the Stephens’ house, from which Virginia and her sister Vanessa were taught the classics and English literature. According to Woolf’s memoirs, her most vivid childhood memories, however, were not of London but of St. Ives in Cornwall, where the family spent every summer until 1895. The Stephens’ summer home, Talland House, looked out over Porthminster Bay, and is still standing today, though somewhat altered. Memories of these family holidays and impressions of the landscape, especially the Godrevy Lighthouse, informed the fiction Woolf wrote in later years, most notably To the Lighthouse. The sudden death of her mother in 1895, when Virginia was 13, and that of her half-sister Stella two years later, led to the first of Virginia’s several nervous breakdowns. The death of her father in 1904 provoked her most alarming collapse and she was briefly institutionalised. Throughout her life, Woolf was plagued by periodic mood swings and associated illnesses. Though this instability often affected her social life, her literary productivity continued with few breaks until her suicide. After the death of their father and Virginia’s second nervous breakdown, Vanessa and Adrian sold 22 Hyde Park Gate and bought a house at 46 Gordon Square in Bloomsbury. Following studies at King’s College, Cambridge, and King’s College London, Woolf came to know Lytton Strachey, Clive Bell, Rupert Brooke, Saxon Sydney-Turner, Duncan Grant, Leonard Woolf and Roger Fry, who together formed the nucleus of the intellectual circle of writers and artists known as the Bloomsbury Group. Virginia Stephen married writer Leonard Woolf in 1912. Despite his low material status the couple shared a close bond. The two also collaborated professionally, in 1917 founding the �Содержание Hogarth Press, which subsequently published Virginia’s novels. Woolf began writing professionally in 1905, initially for the Times Literary Supplement. Her first novel, The Voyage Out, was published in 1915. After completing the manuscript of her last (posthumously published) novel, Between the Acts, Woolf fell victim to a depression similar to that which she had earlier experienced. The onset of World War II, the destruction of her London home during the Blitz, and the cool reception given to her biography of her late friend Roger Fry all worsened her condition until she was unable to work. On 28 March 1941, Woolf committed suicide. She put on her overcoat, filled its pockets with stones, then walked into the River Ouse near her home and drowned herself. Woolf is considered one of the greatest innovators in the English language. In her works she experimented with stream-of-consciousness and the underlying psychological as well as emotional motives of characters. Her novels are highly experimental: a narrative, frequently uneventful and commonplace, is refracted and sometimes almost dissolved in the characters’ receptive consciousness. Intense lyricism and stylistic virtuosity fuse to create a world overabundant with auditory and visual impressions. Having been brought up in the atmosphere of literature, painting and music, she always attempted to express in her writing the outcome of this interaction. She wrote in one of her letters: “I always think of my books as music before I write them”. Her prose presents a vivid example of intermediality. Her chief works are: The Voyage Out (1915), Night and Day (1919), Jacob’s Room (1922), Mrs. Dalloway (1925), To the Lighthouse (1927), Orlando (1929), The Waves (1931). Her works have been translated into over 50 languages. The Common Reader. How Should One Read a Book 1. In the first place, I want to emphasize the note of interrogation at the end of my title. Even if I could answer the question for myself, the answer would apply only to me and not to you. The only advice, indeed, that one person can give another about reading is to take no advice, to follow your own instincts, to use your own reason, to come to your own conclusions. If this is agreed between us, then I feel at liberty to put forward a few ideas and suggestions because you will not allow them to fetter that independence which is the most important quality that a reader can possess. After all, what laws can be laid down about books? The battle of Waterloo was certainly fought on a certain day; but is Hamlet a better play than Lear? Nobody can say. Each must decide that question for himself. To admit authorities, however heavily furred and gowned, into our libraries and let them tell us how to read, what to read, what value to place upon what we read, is to destroy the spirit of freedom which is the breath of those sanctuaries. Everywhere else we may be bound by laws and conventions – there we have none. 2. But to enjoy freedom if the platitude is pardonable, we have of course to control ourselves. We must not squander our powers, helplessly and ignorantly, squiring half the house in order to water a single rose-bush; we must train them, exactly and powerfully, here on the very spot. This, it may be, is one of the first difficulties that faces us in a library. What is “the very spot”? There may well seem to be nothing but a conglomeration and huddle of confusion. Poems and novels, histories and memoirs, dictionaries and blue-books; books written in all languages by �Содержание men and women of all tempers, races, and ages jostle each other on the shelf. And outside the donkey brays, the women gossip at the pump, the colts gallop across the fields. Where are we to begin? How are we to bring order into this multitudinous chaos and get the deepest and widest pleasure from what we read? 3. It is simple enough to say that since books have classes – fiction, biography, poetry – we should separate them and take from each what it is right that each should give us. Most commonly we come to books with blurred and divided minds, asking of fiction that it shall be true, of poetry that it shall be false, of biography that it shall be flattering, of history that it shall enforce our own prejudices. If we could banish all such preconceptions when we read, that would be an admirable beginning. Do not dictate to your author; try to become him. Be his fellow-worker and accomplice. If you hang back, and reserve and criticize at first you are preventing yourself from getting the fullest possible value from what you read. But if you open your mind as widely as possible, then signs and hints of almost imperceptible fineness, from the twist and turn of the first sentences, will bring you into the presence of a human being unlike any other. Steep yourself in this, acquaint yourself with this, and soon you will find that your author is giving you, or attempting to give you, something far more definite. The thirtytwo chapters of a novel – if we consider how to read a novel – first are an attempt to make something as formed and controlled as a building: but words are more impalpable than bricks; reading is a longer and more complicated process than seeing. Perhaps the quickest way to understand the elements of what a novelist is doing is not to read, but to write; to make your own experiment with the dangers and difficulties of words. Recall, then, some event that has left a distinct impression on you – how at the corner of the street, perhaps, you passed two people talking. A tree shook; an electric light danced; the tone of the talk was comic, but also tragic; a whole vision, an entire conception, seemed contained in that moment. 4. But when you attempt to reconstruct it in words, you will find that it breaks into a thousand conflicting impressions. Some must be subdued; others emphasized; in the process you will lose, probably, all grasp upon the emotion itself. The turn from your blurred and littered pages to the opening pages of some great novelist – Defoe, Jane Austen, Hardy. Now you will be better able to appreciate their mastery. It is not merely that we are in the presence of a different person – Defoe, Jane Austen, or Thomas Hardy – but that we are living in a different world. Here, in Robinson Crusoe, we are trudging a plain high road; one thing happens after another; the fact and the order of the fact is enough. But if the open air and adventure mean everything to Defoe they mean nothing to Jane Austen. Hers is the drawing-room, and people talking, and by the many mirrors of their talk revealing their characters. And if, when we have accustomed ourselves to the drawing-room and its reflections, we turn to Hardy, we are once more spun around. The moors are round us and the stars are above our heads. The other side of the mind is now exposed – the dark side that comes uppermost in solitude, not the light side that shows in company. Our relations are not towards people, but towards Nature and destiny. Yet different as these worlds are each is consistent with itself. The marker of each is careful to observe the laws of his own perspective, and however great a strain they may put upon us they will never confuse us, as lesser writers so frequently do, by introducing two different kinds of reality into the same book. Thus to go from one great novelist to another – from Jane Austen to Hardy, from Peacock to Trollope, from Scott to Meredith – is to be wrenched and �Содержание uprooted; to be thrown this way and then that. To read a novel is a difficult and complex art. You must be capable not only of great finesse of perception, but of great boldness of imagination if you are going to make use of all that the novelist – the great artist – gives you. 5. But a glance at the heterogeneous company on the shelf will show you that writers are very seldom “great artists”; far more often a book makes no claim to be a work of art at all. These biographies, for example, lives of great men, of men long dead and forgotten, that stand cheek by jowl with the novels and poems, are we to refuse to read them because they are not “art”? Or shall we read them, but read them in a different way, with a different aim? Shall we read them in the first place to satisfy that curiosity which possesses us sometimes when in the evening we linger in front of a house where the lights are lit and the blinds not yet drawn, and each floor of the house shows us a different section of human life in being? Then we are consumed with curiosity about the lives of these people – the servants gossiping, the gentlemen dining, the girl dressing for a party, the old woman at the window with her knitting. Who are they, what are they, what are their names, their occupations, their thoughts, and adventures? 6. Biographies and memoirs answer such questions, light up innumerable such houses; they show us people going about their daily affairs, toiling, succeeding, eating, hating, loving, until they die. And sometimes as we watch, the house fades and the iron railings vanish and we are out at sea; we are hunting, fighting; we are among savages and soldiers; we are taking part in great campaigns. Or if we like to stay here in England, in London, still the scene changes; the street narrows; the house becomes small, cramped, diamond – paned, and malodorous. We see a poet, Donne, driven from such a house because the walls were so thin that when the children cried their voices cut through them. We can follow him, through the paths that lie in the pages of books, to Twickenham; to Lady Bedford’s Park, a famous meeting-ground for nobles and poets; and then our steps to Wilton, the great house under the downs, and hear Sidney read the Arcadia to his sisters; and ramble among the very marshes and see the very herons that figure in that famous romance; and then again travel north with that other Lady Pembroke, Anne Clifford, to her wild moors, or plunge into the city and control our merriment at the sight of Gabriel Harvey in his black velvet suit arguing about poetry with Spenser. Nothing is more fascinating than to grope and stumble in the alternate darkness and splendour of Elizabethan London. But there is no staying there. The Temples and the Swifts, the Harleys and the St. John beckon us on; hour upon hour can be spent disentangling their quarrels and deciphering their characters; and when we tire of them we can stroll on, past a lady in black wearing diamonds, to Samuel Johnson and Goldsmith and Garrick; or cross the channel, if we like, and meet Voltaire and Diderot, Madame du Deffand; and so back to England and Twickenham – how certain places repeat themselves and certain names! – where Lady Bedford had her Park once and Pope lived later, to Walpole’s home at Strawberry Hill. But Walpole introduces us to such a swarm of new acquaintances, there are so many houses to visit and bells to ring that we may well hesitate for a moment, on the Miss Berry’s doorstep, for example, when behold, up comes Thackeray; he is the friend of the woman whom Walpole loved; so that merely by going from friend to friend. From garden to garden, from house to house, we have passed from one end of English literature to another and wake to find ourselves here again in the present, if we can so differentiate this moment from all that have �Содержание gone before. This, then, is one of the ways in which we can read these lives and letters; we can make them light up the many windows of the past; we can watch the famous dead in their familiar habits and fancy sometimes that we are very close and can surprise their secrets, and sometimes we may pull out a play or a poem that they have written and see whether it reads differently in the presence of the author. But this again rouses other questions. How far, we must ask ourselves, is a book influenced by its writer’s life – how far is it safe to let the man interpret the writer? How far shall we resist or give way to the sympathies and antipathies that the man himself rouses in us – so sensitive are words, so receptive of the character of the author? These are questions that press upon us when we read lives and letters, and we must answer them for ourselves, for nothing can be more fatal than to be guided by the preferences of others in a matter so personal. 7. But also we can read such books with another aim, not to throw light on literature, not to become familiar with famous people, but to refresh and exercise our own creative powers. Is there not an open window on the right hand of the bookcase? How delightful to stop reading and look out! How stimulating the scene is, in its unconsciousness, its irrelevance, its perpetual movement – the colts galloping round the field, the woman filling her pail at the well, the donkey throwing back his head and emitting his long, acrid moan. The greater part of any library is nothing but the record of such fleeting moments in the lives of men, women, and donkeys. Every literature, as it grows old, has its rubbish-heap, its records of vanished moments and forgotten lives told in faltering and feeble accents that have perished. But if you give yourself up to the delight of rubbish-reading you will be surprised, indeed you will be overcome by the relics of human life that have been cast out to moulder. It may be one letter – but what a vision it gives! It may be a few sentences – but what vistas they suggest! Sometimes a whole story will come together with such beautiful humor and pathos and completeness that it seems as if a great novelist had been at work, yet it is only an old actor, Tate Wilkinson, remembering the strange story of Captain Jones; it is only a young subaltern serving under Arthur Wellesley and falling in love with a pretty girl at Lisbon; it is only Maria Allen letting fall her sewing in the empty drawing room and sighing how she wishes she had taken Dr. Burney’s good advice and had never eloped with her Rishy. None of this has any value; it is negligible in the extreme; yet how absorbing it is now and again to go through the rubbish heaps and find rings and scissors and broken noses buried in the huge past and try to piece them together while the colt gallops round the field, the woman fills her pail at the well, and the donkey brays. 8. But we tire of rubbish-reading in the long run. We tire of searching for what is needed to complete the half-truth which is all that the Wilkinsons, the Bunburys, and the Maria Allens are able to offer us. They had not the artist’s power of mastering and eliminating; they could not tell the whole truth even about their own lives; they have disfigured the story that might have been so shapely. Facts are all that they can offer us, and facts are very inferior form of fiction. Thus the desire grows upon us to have done with half-statements and approximations; to cease from searching out the minute shades of human character, to enjoy the greater abstractness, the purer truth of fiction. Thus we create the mood, intense and generalized, unaware of detail, but stressed by some regular, recurrent beat, whose natural expression is poetry; and that is the time to read poetry when we are almost able to write it. Western wind, when wilt thou blow? �Содержание The small rain down can rain Christ, if my love were in my arms, And I in my bed again! The impact of poetry is so hard and direct that for the moment there is no other sensation except that of the poem itself. What profound depths we visit then – how sudden and complete is our immersion! There is nothing here to catch hold of: nothing to stay us in our flight. The illusion of fiction is gradual; its effects are prepared; but who when they read these four lines stops to ask who wrote them, or conjures up the thought of Donne’s house or Sidney’s secretary; or enmeshes them in the intricacy of the past and the succession of generations? The poet is always our contemporary. Our being for the moment is centered and constricted, as in any violent shock of personal emotion. Afterwards, it is true, the sensation begins to spread in wider rings through our minds; remoter senses are reached; these begin to sound and to comment and we are aware of echoes and reflections. The intensity of poetry covers an immense range of emotion. We have only to compare the force and directness of I shall fall like a tree, and find my grave Only remembering that I grieve, with the wavering modulation of Minutes are numbered by the fall of sands As by an hour glass; the span of time Doth waste us to our graves, and we look on it; An age of pleasure, revelled out, comes home At last and ends in sorrow; but the life, Weary of riot, numbers every sand, Wailing in sighs, until the last drop down, So to conclude calamity in rest, or place the meditative calm of whether we be young or old Our destiny, our being’s heart and home, Is wish infinitude, and only there; With hope it is, hope that can never die, Effort, and expectation, and desire, And something evermore about to be, beside the complete and inexhaustible loveliness of The moving Moon went up the sky, And no where did abide: Softly she was going up, And a star or two beside – or the splendid fantasy of And the woodland haunter Shall not cease to saunter �Содержание When, far down some glade, Of the great world’s burning, One soft flame upturning Seems, to his discerning, Crocus in the shade. to bethink us of the varied art of the poet; his power to make us at once actors and spectators; his power to run his hand into character as if it were a glove, and be Falstaff or Lear; his power to condense, to widen, to state, once and for ever. 9. “We have only to compare” – with those words the cat is out of the bag, and the true complexity of reading is admitted. The first process, to receive impressions with the utmost understanding, is only half the process of reading; it must be completed, if we are to get the whole pleasure from a book, by author. We must pass judgment upon these multitudinous impressions; we must make of these fleeting shapes one that is hard and lasting. But not directly. Wait for the dust of reading to settle; for the conflict and the questioning to die down; walk, talk, pull the dead petals from a rose, or fall asleep. Then suddenly without our willing it, for it is thus that Nature undertakes these transitions, the book will return, but differently. It will float to the top of the mind as a whole. And the book as a whole is different from the book received currently in separate phrases. Details now fit themselves into their places. We see the shape from start to finish; it is a barn, a pig-sty, or a cathedral. Now then we can compare book with book as we compare buildings. But this act of comparison means that our attitude has changed; we are no longer the friends of the writer, but his judges; and just as we cannot be too sympathetic as friends, so as judges we cannot be too severe. Are they not criminals, books that have wasted our time and sympathy; are they not the most insidious enemies of society, corrupters, defilers, the writers of false books, books that fill the air with decay and disease? Let us then be severe in our judgments; let us compare each book with the greatest of its kind. There they hang in the mind the shapes of the books we have read solidified by the judgments we have passed on them – Robinson Crusoe, Emma, The Return of the Native. Compare the novels with these – even the latest and least of novels has a right to be judged with the best. And so with poetry – when the intoxication of rhythm has died down and the splendour of words has faded a visionary shape will return to us and this must be compared with Lear, with whatever is the best or seems to us to be the best in its own kind. And we may be sure that the newness of new poetry and fiction is its superficial quality and that we have only to alter slightly, not to recast, the standards by which we have judged the old. 10. It would be foolish, then, to pretend that the second part of reading, to judge, to compare, is as simple as the first – to open the mind wide to the fast flocking of innumerable impressions. To continue reading without the book before you, to hold one shadow- shape against another, to have read widely enough and with enough understanding to make such comparisons alive and illuminating – that is difficult; it is still more difficult to press further and to say, “Not only is the book of this sort, but it is of this value; here it fails; here it succeeds; this is bad; that is good”. To carry out this part of a reader’s duty needs such imagination, insight, and learning that it is hard to conceive any one mind sufficiently endowed; impossible for the most self-confident to find more than the seeds of such powers in himself. Would it not be wiser, then, to remit this part of reading and to allow the critics, the gowned and furred �Содержание authorities of the library, to decide the question of the book’s absolute value for us? Yet how impossible! We may stress the value of sympathy; we may try to sink our own identity as we read. But we know that we cannot sympathize wholly or immerse ourselves wholly; there is always a demon in us who whispers, “I hate, I love,” and we cannot silence him. Indeed, it is precisely because we hate and we love that our relation with the poets and novelists is so intimate that we find the presence of another person intolerable. And even if the results are abhorrent and our judgments are wrong, still our taste, the nerve of sensation that sends shocks through us, is our chief illuminant; we learn through feeling; we cannot suppress our own idiosyncrasy without impoverishing it. But as time goes on perhaps we can train our taste; perhaps we can make it submit to some control. When it has fed greedily and lavishly upon books of all sorts – poetry, fiction, history, biography – and has stopped reading and looked for long spaces upon the variety, the incongruity of the living world, we shall find that it is changing a little; it is not so greedy, it is more reflective. It will begin to bring us not merely judgments on particular books, but it will tell us that there is a quality common to certain books. Listen, it will say, what shall we call this? And it will read us perhaps Lear and then perhaps Agamemnon in order to bring out that common quality. This, with our taste to guide us, we shall venture beyond the particular book in search of qualities that group books together; we shall give them names and thus frame a rule that brings order into our perceptions. We shall gain a further and a rarer pleasure from that discrimination. But as a rule only lives when it is perpetually broken by contact with the books themselves – nothing is easier and more stultifying than to make rules which exist out of touch with facts, in a vacuum – now at least, in order to steady ourselves in this difficult attempt, it may be well to turn to the very rare writers who are able to enlighten us upon literature, as an art. Coleridge and Dryden and Johnson, in their considered criticism, the poets and novelists themselves in their unconsidered sayings, are often surprisingly relevant; they light up and solidify the vague ideas that have been tumbling in the misty depths of our minds. But they are only able to help us if we come to them laden with questions and suggestions won honestly in the course of our own reading. They can do nothing for us if we herd ourselves under their authority and lie down like sheep in the shade of a hedge. We can only understand their ruling when it comes in conflict with our own and vanquishes it. 11. If this is so, if to read a book as it should be read calls for the rarest qualities of imagination, insight and judgment, you may perhaps, conclude that literature is a very complex art and that it is unlikely that we shall be able, even after a lifetime of reading, to make any valuable contribution to its criticism. We must remain readers; we shall not put on the further glory that belongs to those rare beings who are also critics. But still we have our responsibilities as readers and even our importance. The standards we raise and the judgments we pass steal into the air and become part of the atmosphere which writers breathe as they work. An influence is created which tells upon them even if it never finds its way into print. And that influence, if it were well instructed, vigorous and individual and sincere, might be of great value now when criticism is necessarily in abeyance; when books pass in review like the procession of animals in a shooting gallery, and the critic has only one second in which to load and aim and shoot and may well be pardoned if he mistakes rabbits for tigers, eagles for barndoor fowls, or misses altogether and wastes his shot upon some peaceful sow grazing in a �Содержание further field. If behind the erratic gunfire of the press the author felt that there was another kind of criticism, the opinion of people reading for the love of reading, slowly and unprofessionally, and judging with great sympathy and yet with great severity, might this not improve the quality of his work? And if by our means books were to become stronger, richer, and more varied, that would be an end worth reaching. 12. Yet who reads to bring about an end however desirable? Are there not some pursuits that we practice because they are good in themselves, and some pleasures that are final? And is not this among them? I have sometimes dreamt, at least, that when the Day of Judgment dawns and the great conquerors and lawyers and statesmen come to receive their rewards – their crown, their laurels, their names carved indelibly upon imperishable marble – the Almighty will turn to Peter and will say, not without a certain envy when He sees us coming with our books under our arms, “Look, these need no reward. We have nothing to give them here. They have loved reading”. Questions and Tasks for the Analysis of the Essay 1. Speak about the author of the essay: her life, her personality, her literary credo and her contribution to English and world literature. 2. As you know there are different types of essays: descriptive, narrative, expository, persuasive. To which of these types would you refer this essay? Or does it combine features of different types? Give evidence to your opinion. 3. Comment on the title of the essay. Why does the author choose to present in the form of a question? Can we trace the connection between the form of the title and the form of the whole essay? Does the writer merely state her opinion or does she try to involve the readers into discussion? What language means does she employ to involve the reader into discussion? Comment on the tonality of the essay. Is it matter-of-fact or emotional? Pay special attention to the abundance of interrogative and exclamatory sentences and the choice of words and their contribution to the tonality. 4. What is the central thesis of the essay? In what form does the writer present her thesis? Is there only one thesis or are there several, related to the main one? Analyze the structure of the paragraphs paying special attention to the opening sentences. 5. What, in the writer’s opinion, is the most important quality we should posses to be able to enjoy a book and form our own judgement? Point out the words and phrases related to the concept of freedom (in this case freedom of opinion) in the first two paragraphs of the essay. Pay special attention to the metaphors employed by the author in the representation of this concept. 6. What is the author’s attitude to books and libraries? Do we get an impression that Virginia Woolf treats books as human beings? Point out the words and phrases that create this effect. What facts from her biography help us to trace the roots of this attitude? 7. As the essay develops the writer can’t help giving advice to the reader as to how to better understand a book. Quote the sentences which express this advice and comment on the ideas the writer suggests. In paragraph 3 Virginia Woolf often resorts to the form of the Imperative Mood. Yet do you feel that she imposes her opinion on you? What makes her advice sound �Содержание tentative, not imposing? Point out cases of alliteration in paragraph 3 and comment on its phonoaesthetic effect. Pay close attention to the syntax of paragraphs 3 and 4, find cases of parallel constructions and antithesis and comment on their contribution to the style. 8. One of the key metaphors employed by Virginia Woolf in her description of the reading and writing processes is the metaphor of a house (building). She extends this key metaphor by adding other images to the central image. Follow the process of extension and point out the means of metaphorical extension and other metaphors related to the central image. What is the expressive effect of parallel participial constructions in paragraphs 5 and 7? 9. In paragraphs 5–8 Virginia Woolf describes three main genres of literature: biography, poetry, and fiction, pointing out the peculiarities of each. Follow the description and point out the means employed by the author to present the specificity of each genre and its effect upon the readers. Does the tonality of the essay remain the same or does it change as the author passes over from the description of one genre to another? What effect does the change of tonality create? What is the effect of the numerous quotations from poetry? 10. Paragraphs 9–11 are devoted to the description of the post-reading appreciation of a book: comparison and judgement. Do the writer’s ideas coincide with your own? What does she warn us against when we act as judges? What is her attitude to critics? Comment on the effect of the extended simile she resorts to in her description of critics and criticism. 11. Comment on the final paragraph of the essay. How do you interpret the words of her dream? As the last paragraph of an essay usually contains a conclusion, what kind of conclusion does she suggest? 12. What is the author’s aesthetic credo as it is presented in the essay? 13. Summarize your answers, add your own observations and get ready for the final analysis of the essay. Topics for the Essay Based on “How Should One Read a Book” A Few Hints on Essay Writing Lewis Carroll by Virginia Woolf �Содержание Topics for the Essay Based on “How Should One Read a Book” 1. How and why I read books. 2. “I looked for peace everywhere only to find it in one place – in the corner with a book” (Thomas Kempis). 3. “Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and only some few to be chewed and digested” (Francis Bacon). �Содержание A Few Hints on Essay Writing Ask several students or teachers to tell you what an essay is and you are likely to receive several very different answers. There is no common and precise definition. For some teachers and students an essay is a five-paragraph formula (introduction, main point, main point, main point, conclusion). And for some timed-writing or test situations this sort of formula can be useful. A well-written essay is a careful and considered piece of writing which is personal and informal. It is a record of the mind in the act of thinking. It does not spring entirely well formed from your pen. It usually takes a lot of forethought, consideration and time. Yet writing an essay is always stimulating, inspiring, energizing and challenging. Although the entire process of writing an essay may seem overwhelming, do not feel disheartened. All those writing an essay face similar challenges: finding, developing, and organizing ideas; understanding what they are trying to say and expressing that effectively, getting the message across by making their point clearly, correctly and with style and personality. The traditional structure of an essay contains the following parts: an introduction in which you present your central thesis and invite the readers into your discussion of a narrowed topic; a body that classifies and explores with full factual data or arguments the major issues of the thesis; a conclusion that affirms your judgement, offers your solution, or gives a call to action. Here is a possible structure of a well organized essay, the so called TRIAC pattern, in which each letter stands for a part of the essay: T – Theme, topic, thesis: state what the essay is about, the topic the essay addresses, or what you will argue or claim. This opening may run only a sentence or two, but not longer than a paragraph. R – Restatement, restriction, refinement: rephrase the theme or thesis in sharper, slightly more particular ways. This restatement is often preceded with transition like that is, in other words, what I mean is. Again, this restatement may run only a sentence or a few sentences. I – Illustration, example: support your ideas. Give examples. Illustrate your statements. Sentences that do this are often preceded with the traditional phrases for instance or for example. These discussions form the heart of an essay or a paragraph; they give the details that make the writing convincing and interesting. A – Analysis: analysis means telling readers how to understand examples or illustrations. It means making logical, commonsense inferences between causes and effect, intentions and actions. Words like since, therefore, because, however, and nevertheless all work to signal your logic. C – Conclusion: anytime you are ready to draw together several threads of your logic, you are making a conclusion. Such sentences or paragraphs are preceded with in conclusion, thus, summing it up, though these transitions are not always necessary. Conclusions may appear in the middle of an essay and more than once. This structure, however, can vary, too. The steps can go in different orders, such as IATC: �Содержание I – intriguing illustration or an example; A – analysis of this illustration, how it works, why it works this way; T – your sense of the theme of the passage, your real topic; C – your concluding discussion of what now seems true to you and should seem true to the readers. Or you could use TITITIAC variant – three pairs of thesis/illustration followed by analysis of these three add up and a concluding discussion of what now seems accurate or true. TRIAC, in other words, is a structure that can work in lots of different sequences and combinations. They are all workable provided your essay is a careful and thought provoking piece of writing but that is also personal and presents a record of your mind in the act of thinking. �Содержание Lewis Carroll by Virginia Woolf The complete works of Lewis Carroll have been issued by the Nonesuch Press in a stout volume of 1293 pages. So there is no excuse – Lewis Carroll ought once and for all to be complete. We ought to be able to grasp him whole and entire. But we fail – once more we fail. We think we have caught Lewis Carroll; we look again and see an Oxford clergyman. We think we have caught the Rev. C.L. Dodgson – we look again and see a fairy elf. The book breaks in two in our hands. In order to cement it, we turn to the Life. But the Rev. C.L. Dodgson had no life. He passed through the world so lightly that he left no print. He melted so passively into Oxford that he is invisible. He accepted every convention; he was prudish, pernickety, pious, and jocose. If Oxford dons in the nineteenth century had an essence he was that essence. He was so good that his sisters worshipped him; so pure that his nephew has nothing to say about him. It is just possible, he hints, that “a shadow of disappointment lay over Lewis Carroll’s life”. Mr. Dodgson at once denies the shadow. “My life,” he says, “is free from all trial and trouble.” But this untinted jelly contained within it a perfectly hard crystal. It contained childhood. And this is very strange, for childhood normally fades slowly. Wisps of childhood persist when the boy or girl is a grown man or woman. Childhood returns sometimes by day, more often by night. But it was not so with Lewis Carroll. For some reason, we know not what, his childhood was sharply severed. It lodged in him whole and entire. He could not disperse it. And therefore as he grew older this impediment in the centre of his being, this hard block of pure childhood, starved the mature man of nourishment. He slipped through the grown-up world like a shadow, solidifying only on the beach at Eastbourne, with little girls whose frocks he pinned up with safety pins. But since childhood remained in him entire, he could do what no one else has ever been able to do – he could return to that world; he could re-create it, so that we too become children again. In order to make us into children, he first makes us asleep. “Down, down, down, would the fall never come to an end?” Down, down, down we fall into that terrifying, wildly inconsequent, yet perfectly logical world where time races, then stands still; where space stretches, then contracts. It is the world of sleep; it is also the world of dreams. Without any conscious effort dreams come; the white rabbit, the walrus, and the carpenter, one after another, turning and changing one into the other, they come skipping and leaping across the mind. It is for this reason that the two Alices are not books for children; they are the only books in which we become children. President Wilson, Queen Victoria, The Times leader writer, the late Lord Salisbury – it does not matter how old, how important, or how insignificant you are, you become a child again. To become a child is to be very literal; to find everything so strange that nothing is surprising; to be heartless, to be ruthless, yet to be so passionate that a snub or a shadow drapes the world in gloom. It is to be Alice in Wonderland. It is also to be Alice Through the Looking Glass. It is to see the world upside down. Many great satirists and moralists have shown us the world upside down, and have made us see it, as grown-up people see it, savagely. Only Lewis Carroll has shown us the world upside down as a child sees it, and has made us laugh as children laugh, irresponsibly. Down the groves of pure nonsense we whirl laughing, laughing �Содержание They sought it with thimbles, they sought it with care; They pursued it with forks and hope … And then we wake. None of the transitions in Alice in Wonderland is quite so queer. For we wake to find – is it the Rev. C.L. Dodgson? Is it Lewis Carroll? Or is it both combined? This conglomerate object intends to produce an extra-Bowdlerized edition of Shakespeare for the use of British maidens; implores them to think of death when they go to the play; and always, always to realize that “the true object of life is the development of character…” Is there, then, even in 1293 pages, any such thing as “completeness”? Questions and Tasks for the Analysis of the Essay 1. Read the first paragraph and define the thesis of the essay. Pay attention to the use of the word “complete” and the noun “completeness”. How are these words related to the main thesis? How many meanings does the adjective “complete” actualize in the sentence “… Lewis Carroll ought once and for all to be complete”. Whose voice can you hear in this sentence? 2. Study the second paragraph devoted to the life of the Rev. C.L. Dodgson. What image is created by the author and by what means is it created? Write out the key words, which are employed by the author to create this image. Pay special attention to the sentence: “he was prudish, pernickety, pious, and jocose”. Comment on the adjectives that are used to present Lewis Carrol’s personality and their arrangement. What are the relations between the adjectives “prudish”, “pernickety”, “pious” on the one hand and “jocose” on the other and what do these relations reflect? What, according to Virginia Woolf caused Lewis Carrol to write a book for children and about children? Comment on her ideas about the role of childhood in our lives. How much of her own life experience is reflected in her words? What is your opinion of the role of childhood in a person’s life? 3. In the next two paragraphs Virginia Woolf gives her interpretation of Carrol’s two books. How does she interpret the essence of his book? Do you agree to this interpretation? Analyze the manner of her writing. Doesn’t it remind you of Carrol’s manner of writing? How is this resemblance achieved? In fact this passage presents an example of intertextuality. What is the function of intertextuality in this case? 4. Analyze the concluding lines of the last paragraph, starting from “And then we wake”. Comment on the conclusion the author makes and the form of the conclusion. Pay special attention to the repetition of the word “complete”, here in the form of the noun in the end of the essay. Comment on the tonality of the sentence: This conglomerate object intends to produce an extra-Bowdlerized edition of Shakespeare for the use of British maidens; implores them to think of death when they go to the play; and always, always to realize that “the true object of life is the development of character…” Here we see another case of intertextuality, presented by the quotation. What function does intertextuality fulfil in this case? 5. Summarize your answers, add your own observations and get ready for the final analysis of the essay. �Содержание St. Jean de Crevecoeur (1731–1813) Michel Guillaume Jean de Crèvecœur (December 31, 1735 – November 12, 1813), naturalized in New York as John Hector St. John, was a French-American writer. He was born in Caen, Normandy, France, to the Comte and Comtesse de Crèvecœur (Count and Countess of Crèvecœur). In 1755 he immigrated to New France in North America. There, he served in the French and Indian War as a surveyor in the French Colonial Militia, rising to the rank of lieutenant. Following the British defeat of the French Army in 1759 he moved to New York State, then the Province of New York, where he took out citizenship, adopted the English-American name of John Hector St. John, and in 1770 married an American woman, Mehitable Tippet. He bought a sizable farm in Orange County, N.Y., where he prospered as a farmer and took up writing about life in the American colonies and the emergence of an American society. In 1779, during the American Revolution, the faltering health of his father forced him to travel to Europe. Accompanied by his son, he crossed British-American lines to enter Britishoccupied New York City, where he was imprisoned as an American spy for three months without being heard. Eventually, he was able to leave for Britain. In 1782, in London, he published a volume of narrative essays entitled the Letters from an American Farmer. The book quickly became the first literary success by an American author in Europe and turned Crèvecœur into a celebrated figure. He was the first writer to describe to Europeans – employing many American English terms – the life on the American frontier and to explore the concept of the American Dream, portraying American society as characterized by the principles of equal opportunity and self-determination. His work provided useful information and understanding of the “New World” that helped to create an American identity in the minds of Europeans by describing an entire country rather than another regional colony. The writing celebrated American ingenuity and its uncomplicated lifestyle and spelled out the acceptance of religious diversity in a melting pot being created from a variety of ethnic and cultural backgrounds. His application of the Latin maxim “Ubi panis ibi patria” to early American settlers also shows an interesting insight. He once praised the middle colonies for “fair cities, substantial villages, extensive fields... decent houses, good roads, orchards, meadows, and bridges, where an hundred years ago all was wild, woody, and uncultivated”. From Britain, he sailed to France, where he was briefly reunited with his father. When the United States had been recognized by Britain following the Treaty of Paris in 1783, Crèvecœur returned to New York City. He learned that, in his absence, his wife had died, his farm had been destroyed, and his children were now living with neighbors. Eventually, he was able to regain custody of his children. For most of the �Содержание 1780s, Crèvecœur lived in New York City where he now served as the French consul for New York, New Jersey and Connecticut. In 1784, he published a two-volume version of his Letters from an American Farmer, enlarged and completely rewritten in French. A three-volume version followed in 1787. Both his English and his French books were translated into several other European languages and widely disseminated throughout Europe. For many years, Crèvecœur was identified by European readers with his fictional narrator, James, the “American farmer”, and held in high esteem by readers and fellow-writers across Europe. When he published another three-volume work in 1801, entitled Voyage dans la HautePensylvanie et dans l’état de New-York, however, his fame had faded, and his book was ignored. An abbreviated German translation appeared in the following year. An English translation only appeared in 1964. Much of his best work has only been published posthumously, most recently as More Letters from the American Farmer: An edition of the Essays in English Left Unpublished by Crèvecœur, edited by Dennis D. Moore (Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press, 1995). Particularly concerned by the condition of slaves, he was a member of the “Société des Amis des Noirs”, society of the Friends of the Blacks founded in Paris. In 1789, during a stay in France, he was trapped by the political upheaval that was quickly turning into the French Revolution. As an aristocrat, he soon went into hiding, while secretly attempting to gain passage to the United States. The necessary papers were finally granted to him by the new American ambassador to France, James Monroe, in 1794. At the end of his life Crèvecœur settled permanently in France. On November 12, 1813, he died in Sarcelles, Val d’Oise, France. What is an American? I wish I could be acquainted with the feelings and thoughts, which must agitate the heart and present themselves to the mind of an enlightened Englishman, when he first lands on this continent. He must greatly rejoice that he lived at a time to see this fair country discovered and settled; he must necessarily feel a share of national pride, when he views the chain of settlement which embellishes these extended shores. When he says to himself, this is the work of my countrymen, who, when convulsed by factions, afflicted by a variety of miseries and wants, restless and impatient, took refuge here. They brought along with them their national genius, to which they principally owe what liberty they enjoy, and what substance they possess. Here he sees the industry of his native country displayed in a new manner, and traces in their works the embryos of all the arts, sciences, and ingenuity which flourish in Europe. Here he beholds fair cities, substantial villages, extensive fields, an immense country filled with decent houses, good roads, orchards, meadows, and bridges, where a hundred years ago all was wild, woody, and uncultivated! What a train of pleasing ideas this fair spectacle must suggest; it is a prospect which must inspire a good citizen with the most heartfelt pleasure. The difficulty consists in the manner of viewing so extensive a scene. He is arrived on a new continent; a modern society offers itself to his contemplation, different from what he had hitherto seen. It is not composed, as in Europe, of great lords who possess everything, and of �Содержание a herd of people who have nothing. Here are no aristocratical families, no courts, no kings, no bishops, no ecclesiastical dominion, no invisible power giving to a few a very visible one; no great manufacturers employing thousands, no great refinements of luxury. The rich and the poor are not so far removed from each other as they are in Europe. Some few towns excepted, we are all tillers of the earth, from Nova Scotia to West Florida. We are a people of cultivation, scattered over an immense territory, communicating with each other by means of good roads and navigable rivers, united by the silken bands of mild government, all respecting the laws, without dreading their power, because they are equitable. We are all animated with the spirit of an industry which is unfettered and unrestrained, because each person works for himself. If he travels through our rural districts he views not the hostile castle, and the haughty mansion, contrasted with the clay-built hut and miserable cabin, where cattle and men help to keep each other warm, and dwell in meanness, smoke, and indigence. A pleasing uniformity of decent competence appears throughout our habitations. The meanest of our log-houses is a dry and comfortable habitation. Lawyer or merchant are the fairest titles our towns afford; that of a farmer is the only appellation of the rural inhabitants of our country. It must take some time ere he can reconcile himself to our dictionary, which is but short in words of dignity, and names of honor. There, on a Sunday, he sees a congregation of respectable farmers and their wives, all clad in neat homespun, well mounted, or riding in their own humble wagons. There is not among them an esquire, saving the unlettered magistrate. There he sees a person as simple as his flock, a farmer who does not riot on the labor of others. We have no princes, for whom we toil, starve, and bleed; we are the most perfect society now existing in the world. Here man is free as he ought to be, nor is the pleasing equality so transitory as many others are. Many ages will not see the shores of our great lakes replenished with inland nations, nor the unknown bounds of North America entirely peopled. Who can tell how far it extends? Who can tell the millions of men whom it will feed and contain? For no European foot has as yet travelled half the extent of this mighty continent! The next wish of this traveller will be to know whence came all these people? They are a mixture of English, Scotch, Irish, French, Dutch, Germans, and Swedes. From this promiscuous breed, that race now called Americans has arisen. The eastern provinces must indeed be excepted, as being the unmixed descendants of Englishmen. In this great American asylum, the poor of Europe have by some means met together, and in consequence of various causes, to what purpose should they ask one another what countrymen they are? Alas, two thirds of them had no country. Can a wretch who wanders about, who works and starves, whose life is a continual scene of sore affliction or pinching penury; can that man call England or any other kingdom his country? A country that had no bread for him, whose fields procured him no harvest, who met with nothing but the frowns of the rich, the severity of the laws, with jails and punishments; who owned not a single foot of the extensive surface of this planet? No! Urged by a variety of motives, here they came. Everything has tended to regenerate them; new laws, a new mode of living, a new social system. Here they are become men: in Europe they were as so many useless plants. Wanting vegetative mould, and refreshing showers, they withered, and were mowed down by want, �Содержание hunger, and war; but now by the power of transpiration, like all other plants they have taken root and flourished! Formerly they were not numbered in any civil lists of their country, except in those of the poor; here they rank as citizens. By what invisible power has this surprising metamorphosis been performed? By that of the laws and that of their industry. The laws, the indulgent laws, protect them as they arrive, stamping on them the symbol of adoption. They receive ample rewards for their labors; these accumulated rewards procure them lands; those lands confer on them the title of free-men, and to that title every benefit is affixed which men can possibly require. What attachment can a poor European emigrant have for a country where he had nothing? The knowledge of the language, the love of a few kindred as poor as himself, were the only cords that tied him: His country is now that which gives him land, bread, protection, and consequence. Ubi panis ibi patria (Where bread is, there is a fatherland) is the motto of all emigrants. What then is the American, this new man? He is either a European, or the descendant of a European, hence that strange mixture of blood, which you will find in no other country. I could point out to you a family whose grandfather was an Englishman, whose wife was Dutch, whose son married a French woman, and whose present four sons have now four wives of different nations: He is an American, who, leaving behind him all his ancient prejudices and manners, receives new ones from the new mode of life he has embraced, the new government he obeys, and the new rank he holds. He becomes an American by being received in the broad lap of our great Alma Mater. Here individuals of all nations are melted into a new race of men, whose labors and posterity will one day cause great changes in the world. Americans are the western pilgrims, who are carrying along with them that great mass of arts, sciences, vigor, and industry, which began long since in the east; they will finish the great circle. The Americans were once scattered all over Europe; here they are incorporated into one of the finest systems of population which has ever appeared, and which will hereafter become distinct by the power of the different climates they inhabit. The American ought therefore to love this country much better than that wherein either he or his forefathers were born. Here the rewards of his industry follow with equal steps the progress of his labor; his labor is founded on the basis of nature, self-interest; can it want a stronger allurement? Wives and children, who before in vain demanded of him a morsel of bread, now, fat and frolicsome, gladly help their farther to clear those fields whence exuberant crops are to arise to feed and to clothe them all, without any part being claimed, either by a despotic prince, a rich abbot, or a mighty lord. Here religion demands but little of him; a small voluntary salary to the minister, and gratitude to God; can he refuse there? The American is a new man, who acts upon new principles; he must therefore entertain new ideas, and form new opinions. From involuntary idleness, servile dependence, penury, and useless labor, he has passed to toils of a very different nature, rewarded by ample subsistence. – This is an American. Questions and Tasks for the Analysis of the Text 1. Define the type of the essay and support your opinion. 2. What is the central thesis of the essay? In what form is the thesis presented? How is this thesis supported? �Содержание 3. In what tonality is the essay written? Do you not have an impression that it sounds as a hymn to America and Americans? By what language means is this effect achieved? Pay special attention to the choice of words, the communicative types of sentences, and the syntax of the essay. 4. The main principle which underlies the structure of the essay is contrast. Point out the language means which are used by the author to build this contrast. What things are contrasted? Point out the main devices that the author employs to describe the life of the people in Europe and on the new land. Point out the key metaphors that the author exploits and their expressive effect. Pay special attention to means of expressing negation and the role of negation in the essay. Comment on the thesis Ubi panis ibi patria, which as the author points out, was the motto of all immigrants. Do you support this statement? 5. What are the components of the concept “American Dream” as they are presented in this essay? 6. What predictions did the author make about the future of American society? Have they all come true? Give facts from contemporary life to support your opinion. 7. What answer does the author give to the question presented in the title? 8. What values of American society can be pointed out from the analysis of the essay? 9. Sum up your observations in the final analysis of the essay. Topics for the Argumentative Essay Based on “What is an American?” Samples of Student’s Essays What Is a Japanese. The Merits and Demerits of Stereotypes Where Bread Is There’s A Fatherland What Is An Ossetian Or Blood Is Thicker Than Water �Содержание Topics for the Argumentative Essay Based on “What is an American?” 1. Where bread is there’s a fatherland. 2. What is an American (a Russian, an Italian etc.). The merits and demerits of stereotypes. �Содержание Samples of Student’s Essays What Is a Japanese. The Merits and Demerits of Stereotypes Where Bread Is There’s A Fatherland What Is An Ossetian Or Blood Is Thicker Than Water �Содержание What Is a Japanese. The Merits and Demerits of Stereotypes However globalised we are now, stereotypes are still a plague of our society. There has been a great progress in humanity’s world view in general (and mind that we are still on the move), as gender, racial and what not restrictions are not as severe as they used to be, yes, but we still have a long way ahead of us. It appears to me that stereotypes are unavoidable, however hard we try to deny this. Mass media may be responsible for making them pop up; the first impression of coming into contact with something alien also has its impact. Yet people sometimes tend to forget that there may be more behind the first impression, and mass media is not always the best choice to put your trust into, as in one way or another there is always this little devil of a wish to make a big stir whatever the cost. Let us take Japan as an example. If one asks a non-initiate “What is a Japanese?” the most likely answer may be “Those weird big-eyed cartoons” (meaning anime), “Sushi”, “Robots” or “Sakura” – at least these were the answers I got when trying to do a little survey. Funny thing, but most of the time people do not even realize that any other cartoon outside Japan is in fact anime in the eyes of the Japanese themselves, as this is an abbreviation of an English borrowing animation. The age brackets and choice of genre are significantly wider in Japanese animation, yes, but still it does not remove the essence of the phenomenon. Japanese culture is indeed often misunderstood by the general public, like any other more or less alien thing. The truth is that Japanese do not really mind their reputation, because as a matter of fact they have nothing to be ashamed of judging from their own perspective. If the Germans may be still haunted by the Nazi stereotype and us Russians are expected to be equipped with a set of balalaikas and draught bears from the cradle (and I am not being sarcastic about our balalaika and bears stereotypes at all, in fact I find them endearing), it seems that Japanese simply do not care a fig what the world thinks of their culture and customs. This reputation is in fact quite a handy shielding for a nation that has always been continues to be very private. Of course Japan now is not as sternly isolated as it was before yet it does not welcome just about every person with open arms. One can say that Japan is like a club where only cool kids hang out (except that they do not try to openly belittle people around them). If you want to stay in the country, you must have something to offer that will benefit Japan’s well-being. But having this “something” is one thing – you still have a language barrier to jump over. I highly doubt they have abandoned the feeling of being superior, they just buried it deep within – in our globalised society there is simply no place for it. I am not in any way trying to say that they are a bunch of secluded egomaniacs who hate each and every foreigner and wish Amaterasu’s entire wrath upon them (yet they do have an absolutely charming name for us all – baka-gaijin, literally translated as stupid foreigner – though statistics say mostly Americans are honoured with this fine title). There are some glimpses of disdain here and there, take the Japanese syllabaries hiragana and katakana for example: the first is used to write down native Japanese words, the second is used for borrowings. If hiragana is all round and pretty, katakana is like “here are some sticks, make them work – baka-gaijinisms do not deserve even the slightest piece of our mother tongue’s gracefulness”. Yet they still adapt borrowings to �Содержание make them fit into the Japanese sound pattern – if it is fairly easy to figure out what aisukurimu is, one might want to consult a dictionary to know what wanpatān, or rimokon means (it is one pattern and remo(te) con(troll) respectively). There are more serious issues of Japan giving a cold shoulder to anything non-Japanese or even half-Japanese, however. With an increased number of foreigners living and working in Japan, interracial children appear, and they are known in Japan as hafu (adaptation of half). The issue is that sometimes these children will face hostility at school for being “not pure Japanese”. It may be not that widespread in bigger cities and their vicinities, yet more distant areas tend to stick to traditions of purity – if you think about it, it has not been very long since the isolation period ended, and some things are hard to uproot. Mixed children also sometimes fall into the category of gaijin, and whereas for a real foreigner the definition looks more or less factual (from the foreigner’s perspective, from the Japanese perspective it is still derogatory), for those mixed it is offensive. Where did this feeling of superiority come from anyway? The answer is fairly easy if you know a thing or two about Japanese history – religion. This is also presumably one of the reasons that drove Japan to joining the Axis during WWII, as traditional Japanese religion – Shinto – clearly states that Japan is the land created by the gods themselves with the Japanese Emperor being the descendant of the pantheon’s main deity – Amaterasu. Moreover, according to Shinto, any Japanese is a potential kami (Japanese word for god as well as the term denoting numerous deities) – it depends on one’s doings. In actual fact, one can make almost anything a kami in Shinto – be it a person, a mountain (shout out to Fuji-san), a tree, a stone, a chair – literally anything. Of course it is not a common practice nowadays, but the grounds are pretty much so. Do whatever you want with your kami, but live in harmony with nature and everything that surrounds you in your paper-thin house – no strict codes, just a simple set of rules to keep the balance. To put it all together – Japan is indeed a land of contrasts and wonders, with their own quirks, like any other country or people. I personally find it hard to idolise it, and I am far from hating it. I do not see any in-between either. I just sit there for five years or so with my check propped on my fist and thinking “Well, this is some amusing folk indeed”. Tania Klimova, group 104e �Содержание Where Bread Is There’s A Fatherland Isn’t it a natural desire to look for a better life? Any activity begins when we realize that we need or want more than we have. This need is a driving force that stands behind our motivation. The need can send us to another part of the world and make us take root there. For some people the fatherland is a country where they and their families were born and they feel very loyal towards it. However, other people are like migratory birds – when they feel that the circumstances do not satisfy them anymore, they look for a better place. Though unlike birds, they may never come back home. We all come from a wide variety of different backgrounds and walks of life. Some children are lucky enough to be born into wealthy and prosperous families. “He was born with a silver spoon in his mouth,” people say about them. When they grow up, their fatherland gives them an opportunity to preserve and increase their wealth. However, other people come from families which live on the edge of poverty and hunger. If their country does nothing to improve their life conditions, should they call it a fatherland? Should they set a high value on it? No doubt, a lot of poor people would never exchange their fatherland for anything else and would give away their lives for it. Though some of them would prefer to leave the country that does not care for its citizens and consider a better place to be their fatherland. The life conditions for the rich and the poor are drastically different. It is a natural balance, though one can change their life and achieve success regardless of their background. It is believed that children from poor families tend to achieve more in life. They have more motivation and a clear understanding of what they want to get in this life. Moreover, they tend to be more confident because they are not tied to what they have (as they have practically nothing), so they are able to risk everything (which in their case is not much) and start a new life. Most often a new life starts in a new place – a new city, country or even continent. The opportunities of the rich, however, are limited, as they are too concerned about not losing their money and privileges. They are not likely to leave what they have inherited from their parents and start anything from scratch. For them their fatherland is their home country which gave them this prosperity and they will stay there whatever happens to protect their treasures. Why go somewhere else if your life is perfect at home? The poor are different: nothing to lose – no fears. Oppressive legislation, poor working conditions, a low income and the absence of protection make their basic instincts wake up – if the conditions are so bad, people look for a way to escape. Sometimes the only way is to leave the home country and sacrifice the notion of fatherland. It is no wonder that the FrenchAmerican writer J. Hector St. John de Crèvecœur said Ubi panis ibi patria (Where bread is, there is a fatherland) is the motto of all emigrants. People who were born poor and are not provided with protection, rights and the opportunity to live a decent life, naturally want to leave the fatherland for a better country. Can we blame them for it and call traitors? Hardly so. Fatherland should be a value only when the citizens are taken care of. The motto might sound too materialistic, though there is a grain of truth in it. �Содержание Need is one of the basic notions of human psychology. Need makes us take actions, look for a way out and change our lives for the better. Sometimes need drives us to another place which is better in some respect. If a person feels at home there and realizes (s)he is safe and happy, does it matter where they were born? Sometimes your fatherland is not where you come into the world, but where you forget the voice of need. Vika Kandaurova, group 124e �Содержание What Is An Ossetian Or Blood Is Thicker Than Water Being an Ossetian is difficult but enjoyable. If you do not believe me you can ask my father who has been struggling with cold, language and me mother for twenty-four years. He does it with sweet smile and kind word. To be honest, I have never seen a person as friendly as my father. Anyway, it is in his blood. Actually, there is a list of characteristics that any Ossetian should follow to become at home among strangers in Russia. There are three of them: • be friendly; • make random stresses in words; • launch your own business. As I have already said, amiability runs before an Ossetian. They will always be the masters of hospitality. You will always feel like home in their company where wine flows and pies flies. But be very attentive with women. They are sly as foxes, calculating as Jews and gossiping as gutter press. A lot of women are like that but the ones I know are the new form of evil. Anyway, you will never know the truth and may disagree because they will never show or tell it. The second item in the list is not a surprise for people who have ever communicated with people from the Greater Caucasus Mountains. But only these people pronounce words and tell stories with such a pretty charm that it becomes their trademark. For years we have been collecting the best mistakes of my father and still laugh at them. One more thing about the Ossetians – they are inborn businessmen. Each of them has his or her business and if not he or she works on his or her brother or sister. This system is very unstable and I do not like it at all (maybe it is the voice of a Russian woman talks). I would rather work for ten thousand rubbles per month than for a million per somewhen. Moreover, a good man cannot make big money. The last thing is not in the list but I think it is the most important. Being an Ossetian is to be proud of where you are from and who you are. They can teach Russian people to love their country and respect the culture. They can show us how one can miss his or her motherland. They can explain how we should cherish our families. As a half-blood Ossetian I can honestly say that I am proud of this blood in my veins. And I hope that I inherited only best traits. In any case, I am a daughter of my wonderful father and my beautiful mother who raised me right. Marina Bestaeva, group 124a �Содержание Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803–1882) Ralph Waldo Emerson was one of the most influential American writers. He articulated many of the fundamental beliefs of 19th-century. As the leader of Transcendentalism, Emerson spoke out against materialism, formal religion and slavery. Though he ranked as his country’s most piercing critic, he helped to establish the “American identity” preaching and exemplifying individualism. In one of his famous phrases Emerson urges: “Trust thyself”. Emerson’s philosophic views were often considered radical at the time. He believed in a spiritual universe governed by a mystic Over-soul with which each individual soul should try to harmonize. In other words, there is a “sixth sense” which Emerson calls the sense of the Self, that inner inkling that somehow seems to know what’s best for us, even when we don’t think we know. Emerson was known first as an orator. He converted many of his orations into written works. Both his lectures and his published works were filled with wisdom expressed in a startling and impressive way. Throughout his life Emerson kept detailed journals of his thoughts and actions, and he returned to them as a source for many of his essays. Emerson’s essays are marked by eloquence, effective argumentation and emotionality achieved through the skillful use of references, imagery, large vocabulary and expressive syntax. They earned him the name of “American Socrates”. However, Emerson’s writings offer a way of life, not a system or philosophy. For Emerson, the values of individualism, self-reliance, nonconformity and reverence for nature were fundamentally grounded in experience. The essay “Self-Reliance”, for which Emerson is perhaps best known, contains the most thorough statement of the need for people to avoid conformity and false consistency, and instead follow their own instincts and ideas. The essay has three major focuses: the importance of self-reliance, self-reliance and the individual, and self-reliance and society. from Self-Reliance “Ne te quæsiveris extra” “Man is his own star; and the soul that can Render an honest and a perfect man, Commands all light, all influence, all fate; Nothing to him falls early or too late. �Содержание Our acts our angels are, or good or ill, Our fatal shadows that walk by us still.” Epilogue to Beaumont and Fletcher’s Honest Man’s Fortune Cast the bantling on the rocks, Suckle him with the she-wolf’s teat Wintered with the hawk and fox, Power and speed be hands and feet. I read the other day some verses written by an eminent painter which were original and not conventional. The soul always hears an admonition in such lines, let the subject be what it may. The sentiment they instill is of more value than any thought they may contain. To believe your own thought, to believe that what is true for you in your private heart is true for all men, – that is genius. Speak your latent conviction, and it shall be the universal sense; for the inmost in due time becomes the outmost, – and our first thought is rendered back to us by the trumpets of the Last Judgment. Familiar as the voice of the mind is to each, the highest merit we ascribe to Moses, Plato, and Milton is, that they set at naught books and traditions, and spoke not what men but what they thought. A man should learn to detect and watch that gleam of light which flashes across his mind from within, more than the lustre of the firmament of bards and sages. Yet he dismisses without notice his thought, because it is his. In every work of genius we recognize our own rejected thoughts: they come back to us with a certain alienated majesty. Great works of art have no more affecting lesson for us than this. They teach us to abide by our spontaneous impression with good-humored inflexibility then most when the whole cry of voices is on the other side. Else, to-morrow a stranger will say with masterly good sense precisely what we have thought and felt all the time, and we shall be forced to take with shame our own opinion from another. There is a time in every man’s education when he arrives at the conviction that envy is ignorance; that imitation is suicide; that he must take himself for better, for worse, as his portion; that though the wide universe is full of good, no kernel of nourishing corn can come to him but through his toil bestowed on that plot of ground which is given to him to till. The power which resides in him is new in nature, and none but he knows what that is which he can do, nor does he know until he has tried. …Trust thyself: every heart vibrates to that iron string. Accept the place the divine providence has found for you, the society of your contemporaries, the connexion of events. Great men have always done so, and confided themselves childlike to the genius of their age, betraying their perception that the Eternal was stirring at their heart, working through their hands, predominating in all their being. And we are now men, and must accept in the highest mind the same transcendent destiny; and not pinched in a corner, not cowards fleeing before a revolution, but redeemers and benefactors, pious aspirants to be noble clay under the Almighty effort let us advance on Chaos and the Dark. …These are the voices which we hear in solitude, but they grow faint and inaudible as we enter into the world. Society everywhere is in conspiracy against the manhood of every one of its �Содержание members. Society is a joint stock company, in which the members agree, for the better securing of his bread to each shareholder, to surrender the liberty and culture of the eater. The virtue in most request is conformity. Self-reliance is its aversion. It loves not realities and creators, but names and customs. Whoso would be a man, must be a nonconformist. He who would gather immortal palms must not be hindered by the name of goodness, but must explore if it be goodness. Nothing is at last sacred but the integrity of our own mind. Absolve you to yourself, and you shall have the suffrage of the world. I remember an answer which when quite young I was prompted to make to a valued adviser who was wont to importune me with the dear old doctrines of the church. On my saying , What have I to do with the sacredness of traditions, if I live wholly from within? my friend suggested, – “But these impulses may be from below, not from above”. I replied, “They do not seem to me to be such; but if I am the devil’s child, I will live then from the devil”. No law can be sacred to me but that of my nature. Good and bad are but names very readily transferable to that or this; the only right is what is after my constitution; the only wrong what is against it. A man is to carry himself in the presence of all opposition as if every thing were titular and ephemeral but he. I am ashamed to think how easily we capitulate to badges and names, to large societies and dead institutions. …What I must do is all that concerns me, not what the people think. This rule, equally arduous in actual and in intellectual life, may serve for the whole distinction between greatness and meanness. It is the harder because you will always find those who think they know what is your duty better than you know it. It is easy in the world to live after the world’s opinion; it is easy in solitude to live after our own; but the great man is he who in the midst of the crowd keeps with perfect sweetness the independence of solitude. …The other terror that scares us from self-trust is our consistency; a reverence for our past act or word, because the eyes of others have no other data for computing our orbit than our past acts, and we are loath to disappoint them. But why should you keep your head over your shoulder? Why drag about this corpse of your memory, lest you contradict somewhat you have stated in this or that public place? Suppose you should contradict yourself; what then? It seems to be a rule of wisdom never to rely on your memory alone, scarcely even in acts of pure memory, but to bring the past for judgment into the thousand-eyed present, and live ever in a new day. In your metaphysics you have denied personality to the Deity: yet when the devout motions of the soul come, yield to them heart and life, though they should clothe God with shape and color. Leave your theory, as Joseph his coat in the hand of the harlot, and flee. A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds, adored by little statesmen and philosophers and divines. With consistency a great soul has simply nothing to do. He may as well concern himself with his shadow on the wall. Speak what you think now in hard words, and to-morrow speak what to-morrow thinks in hard words again, though it contradict every thing you said to-day. Ah, so you shall be sure to be misunderstood. Is it so bad, then, to be misunderstood? Pythagoras was misunderstood, and Socrates, and Jesus, and Luther, and Copernicus, and Galileo, and Newton, and every pure and wise spirit that ever took flesh. To be great is to be misunderstood. �Содержание …Man is timid and apologetic; he is no longer upright; he dares not say “I think,” “I am,” but quotes some saint or sage. He is ashamed before the blade of grass or the blowing rose. These roses under my window make no reference to former roses or to better ones; they are for what they are; they exist with God to-day. There is no time to them. There is simply the rose; it is perfect in every moment of its existence. Before a leaf-bud has burst, its whole life acts; in the fullblown flower there is no more; in the leafless root there is no less. Its nature is satisfied and it satisfies nature in all moments alike. There is no time to it. But man postpones or remembers; he does not live in the present, but with reverted eye laments the past, or, heedless of the riches that surround him, stands on tiptoe to foresee the future. He cannot be happy and strong until he too lives with nature in the present, above time. …Is the acorn better than the oak which is its fullness and completion? Is the parent better than the child into whom he has cast his ripened being? Whence, then, this worship of the past? The centuries are conspirators against the sanity and authority of the soul. Time and space are but physiological colors which the eye makes, but the soul is light; where it is, is day; where it was, is night; and history is an impertinence and an injury, if it be any thing more than a cheerful apologue or parable of my being and becoming. …Society never advances. It recedes as fast on one side as it gains on the other. Its progress is only apparent like the workers of a treadmill. It undergoes continual changes; it is barbarous, it is civilized, it is christianized, it is rich, it is scientific; but this change is not amelioration. For every thing that is given something is taken. Society acquires new arts and loses old instincts. What a contrast between the well-clad, reading, writing, thinking American, with a watch, a pencil and a bill of exchange in his pocket, and the naked New Zealander, whose property is a club, a spear, a mat and an undivided twentieth of a shed to sleep under. But compare the health of the two men and you see that his aboriginal strength, the white man has lost. If the traveller tell us truly, strike the savage with a broad axe and in a day or two the flesh shall unite and heal as if you struck the blow into soft pitch, and the same blow shall send the white man to his grave. The civilized man has built a coach, but has lost the use of his feet. He is supported on crutches, but lacks so much support of muscle. He has got a fine Geneva watch, but he has lost the skill to tell the hour by the sun. A Greenwich nautical almanac he has, and so being sure of the information when he wants it, the man in the street does not know a star in the sky. The solstice he does not observe; the equinox he knows as little; and the whole bright calendar of the year is without a dial in his mind. His notebooks impair his memory: his libraries overload his wit; the insurance-office increases the number of accidents; and it may be a question whether machinery does not encumber; whether we have not lost by refinement some energy, by a christianity entrenched in establishments and forms some vigor of wild virtue. For every stoic was a stoic; but in Christendom where is the Christian? …Live no longer to the expectation of these deceived and 13 deceiving people with whom we converse. Say to them, O father, O mother, O wife, O brother, O friend, I have lived with you after appearances hitherto. Henceforward I am the truth’s. Be it known unto you that henceforward I obey no law less than the eternal law. I will have no covenants but proximities. �Содержание I shall endeavour to nourish my parents, to support my family, to be the chaste husband of one wife, – but these relations I must fill after a new and unprecedented way. I appeal from your customs. I must be myself. I cannot break myself any longer for you, or you. If you can love me for what I am, we shall be the happier. If you cannot, I will still seek to deserve that you should. I will not hide my tastes or aversions. I will so trust that what is deep is holy, that I will do strongly before the sun and moon whatever inly rejoices me, and the heart appoints. If you are noble, I will love you; if you are not, I will not hurt you and myself by hypocritical attentions. If you are true, but not in the same truth with me, cleave to your companions; I will seek my own. I do this not selfishly, but humbly and truly. It is alike your interest, and mine, and all men’s, however long we have dwelt in lies, to live in truth. Does this sound harsh today? You will soon love what is dictated by your nature as well as mine, and, if we follow the truth, it will bring us out safe at last. – But so you may give these friends pain. Yes, but I cannot sell my liberty and my power, to save their sensibility. Besides, all persons have their moments of reason, when they look out into the region of absolute truth; then will they justify me, and do the same thing. …So use all that is called Fortune. Most men gamble with her, and gain all, and lose all, as her wheel rolls. But do thou leave as unlawful these winnings, and deal with Cause and Effect, the chancellors of God. In the Will work and acquire, and thou hast chained the wheel of Chance, and shalt sit hereafter out of fear from her rotations. A political victory, a rise of rents, the recovery of your sick, or the return of your absent friend, or some other favorable event, raises your spirits, and you think good days are preparing for you. Do not believe it. Nothing can bring you peace but yourself. Nothing can bring you peace but the triumph of principles. Questions and Tasks for the Analysis of the Text 1. What do you know about Ralph Waldo Emerson and the philosophy of Transcendentalism? How does the idea of self-reliance relate to the concept of “American identity”? 2. What ideas do the epigraphs contain? Are they expressed directly or implied? Analyse the imagery. What stylistic devices are employed by the author? 3. How does the author begin his essay? Mark the interconnection of the personal and the common in the introduction. How is it reflected in the use of pronouns? Find the statement that captures the essence of what Emerson means by “self-reliance”. 4. Analyse the allusions. Why do Moses, Plato and Milton appear in the same context? Who are “bards and sages”? 5. Interpret the last sentence of the first paragraph. How does it develop the idea of “rejected thoughts”? Do you agree that it is shameful to recognize one’s own opinion in the words of “a stranger”? 6. What metaphor is used to present Emerson’s conviction that it is necessary to depend on one’s own opinion? How does the author extend the central image of crop growing? 7. Analyse the religious references in the essay. What is the role of “the divine providence” in �Содержание the definition of a person’s place in this world? Trace the influence of Transcendentalism in the interpretation of the motto: “Trust thyself.” 8. What prevents people from trusting their own mind? Who or what acts “in conspiracy against the manhood”? What terms does the author use to represent the concept of society? What is his attitude to social conventions? How does the brevity of the author’s expression contribute to the emotionality of the text? 9. What is the danger of being a nonconformist according to the opinion of the author’s friend? Can intuition be evil? How does the author justify the sacredness of human nature? What are the arguments for the absolute value of individual opinion? 10. What is, according to the author, another barrier to self–reliance? Analyse the imagery employed to convey the idea of consistency? 11. “To be great is to be misunderstood,” says the author. Does it sound like a paradox? Who are the people Emerson includes in the good company of the misunderstood? Who can join this company? What syntactical expressive means accentuates the idea of its open membership? 12. How does the author relate the concepts of consistency and time? What picture does he give to underline human inability to live in the present. 13. What illustrations does the author give to argue the idea that “society never advances”? Are the things he mentions in the examples relevant today? What could be added to the list of objects and notions defining the life of a modern man? What syntactical expressive means support Emerson’s argumentation? 14. Do you think the acquisitions of civilization, including religious teachings, improve or destroy human nature? Why does the author use an indefinite article before the word “christianity” leaving it uncapitalised? Interpret the question containing the opposition of “a stoic” and “the Christian”. What implications does the word “Christendom” contain? 15. What is the mood and tone of the final paragraphs of the essay? What expressive means render the author’s enthusiasm and inspiration? Comment on the repeated use of the pronoun “I”, parallel constructions, enumeration, and imperative sentences. 16. What is the idea contained in the last lines of the essay? Does it sound comforting or disturbing? Can a man be happy in his absolute spiritual alienation? 17. Summarise your impressions in the final analysis of the text pointing out the language means that constitute Emerson’s elegant and poetic style. Pay attention to historical and biblical references, elaborate wording, imagery, and syntactic patterns. �Содержание Laurie Lee (1914–1997) Laurence Edward Alan “Laurie” Lee, (June 26 1914 – May 13, 1997) was an English poet, novelist, and screenwriter, raised in the village of Slad, Gloucestershire. His most famous work was an autobiographical trilogy which consisted of Cider with Rosie (1959), As I Walked Out One Midsummer Morning (1969) and A Moment of War (1991). The first volume recounts his childhood in the idyllic Slad Valley. The second deals with his leaving home for London and his first visit to Spain in 1935, and the third with his return to Spain in December 1937 to join the Republican International Brigades. Having been born in Stroud, Lee’s family moved to the village of Slad in 1917, the move with which Cider with Rosie opens. At twelve, Laurie went to the Central Boys School in Stroud. In his notebook for 1928, when he was fourteen he lists ‘Concert and Dance Appointments’, for at this time he was in demand to play his violin at dances. He left the Central School at fifteen to become an errand boy at a Chartered Accountants in Stroud. In 1931 he first found the Whiteway Colony, two miles from Slad, a colony founded by Tolstoyan Anarchists. It gave him his first smattering of politicization and was where he met the composer Benjamin Frankel and the ‘Cleo’ who appears in As I Walked Out One Midsummer Morning. In 1933 he met Sophia Rogers, an “exotically pretty girl with dark curly hair” who had moved to Slad from Buenos Aires, an influence on Lee who said, later in life, that he only went to Spain because “a girl in Slad from Buenos Aires taught me a few words of Spanish”. At twenty he worked as an office clerk and a builder’s labourer, and lived in London for a year before leaving for Spain in the summer of 1935. After the outbreak of war in July 1936 Lee was picked up by a British destroyer from Gibraltar collecting marooned British subjects on the southern Spanish coast. He started to study for an art degree (during these years he met a woman who helped him financially) but returned to Spain in 1937 as an International Brigade volunteer. These experiences were recounted in As I Walked Out One Midsummer Morning (1969), his observations of pre-Civil War Spain as he walked from Vigo, in Galicia, to Almuñécar, in Granada, and in A Moment of War (1991), an austere memoir of his experience as a volunteer in the Spanish Civil War. Before devoting himself entirely to writing in 1951, Lee worked as a journalist and as a scriptwriter. During World War II he made documentary films for the General Post Office film unit (1939–40) and the Crown Film Unit (1941–43). From 1944 to 1946 he worked as the Publications Editor for the Ministry of Information.[4] In 1950 Lee married Catherine Francesca Polge, whose father was Provençal and whose mother was one of the Garman sisters; they had one daughter, Jessie. �Содержание “Cider with Rosie” continues to be one of the UK’s most popular books, and is sometimes used as a set English Literature text for schoolchildren. It captured images of village life from a bygone era of innocence and simplicity. Lee’s first love was always poetry, though he was only moderately successful as a poet. Lee’s first poem appeared in Cyril Connolly’s Horizon in 1940 and he published his first volume of poems, The Sun My Monument, in 1944. This was followed by The Bloom of Candles (1947) and My Many Coated Man (1955). Several poems written in the early 1940s reflect the atmosphere of the war, but also capture the beauty of the English countryside. Other works include A Rose for Winter, about a trip he made to Andalusia fifteen years after the Civil War; Two Women (1983), a story of Lee’s courtship and marriage with Kathy, daughter of Helen Garman; The Firstborn (1964), about the birth and childhood of their daughter Jessye; I Can’t Stay Long (1975), a collection of occasional writing; and The Edge of Day (1960), an autobiography. Lee also wrote travel books, essays, a radio play, and short stories. In the 1960s, Laurie Lee and his wife returned to Slad to live near his childhood home, where they remained until his death in 1997, at age 82. He is buried in the local churchyard. Appetite One of the major pleasures in life is appetite, and one of our major duties should be to preserve it. Appetite is the keenness of living; it is one of the senses that tells you that you are still curious to exist, that you still have an edge on your longings and want to bite into the world and taste its multitudinous flavours and juices. By appetite, of course, I don’t mean just the lust for food, but any condition of unsatisfied desire, any burning in the blood that proves you want more than you’ve got, and that you haven’t yet used up your life. Wilde said he felt sorry for those who never got their heart’s desire, but sorrier still for those who did. I got mine once only, and it nearly killed me, and I’ve always preferred wanting to having since. For appetite, to me, is this state of wanting, which keeps one’s expectations alive. I remember learning this lesson long ago as a child, when treats and orgies were few, and when I discovered that the greatest pitch of happiness was not in actually eating a toffee but in gazing at it beforehand. True, the first bite was delicious, but once the toffee was gone one was left with nothing, neither toffee nor lust. Besides, the whole toffeeness of toffees was imperceptibly diminished by the gross act of having eaten it. No, the best was in wanting it, in sitting and looking at it, when one tasted an inexhaustible treasure-house of flavours. So, for me, one of the keenest pleasures of appetite remains in the wanting, not the satisfaction. In wanting a peach, or a whisky, or a particular texture or sound, or to be with a particular friend. For in this condition, of course, I know that the object of desire is always at its most flawlessly perfect. �Содержание Which is why I would carry the preservation of appetite to the extent of deliberate fasting, simply because I think that appetite is too good to lose, too precious to be bludgeoned into insensibility by satiation and overdoing it. For that matter, I don’t really want three square meals a day – I want one huge, delicious, orgiastic, table-groaning blow-out, say every four days, and then not be too sure where the next one is coming from. A day of fasting is not for me just a puritanical device for denying oneself a pleasure, but rather a way of anticipating a rarer moment of supreme indulgence. Fasting is an act of homage to the majesty of appetite. So I think we should arrange to give up our pleasures regularly – our food, our friends, our lovers – in order to preserve their intensity, and the moment of coming back to them. For this is the moment that renews and refreshes both oneself and the thing one loves. Sailors and travellers enjoyed this once, and so did hunters, I suppose. Part of the weariness of modern life may be that we live too much on top of each other, and are entertained and fed too regularly. Once we were separated by hunger both from our food and families, and then we learned to value both. The men went off hunting, and the dogs went with them; the women and children waved goodbye. The cave was empty of men for days on end; nobody ate, or knew what to do. The women crouched by the fire, the wet smoke in their eyes; the children wailed; everybody was hungry. Then one night there were shouts and the barking of dogs from the hills, and the men came back loaded with meat. This was the great reunion, and everybody gorged themselves silly, and appetite came into its own; the long-awaited meal became a feast to remember and an almost sacred celebration of life. Now we go off to the office and come home in the evenings to cheap chicken and frozen peas. Very nice, but too much of it, too easy and regular, served up without effort or wanting. We eat, we are lucky, our faces are shining with fat, but we don’t know the pleasure of being hungry any more. Too much of anything – too much music, entertainment happy snacks, of time spent with one’s friends, creates a kind of impotence of living by which one can no longer hear, or taste, or see, or love, or remember. Life is short and precious, and appetite is one of its guardians, and loss of appetite is a sort of death. So if we are to enjoy this short life we should respect the divinity of appetite, and keep it eager and not too much blunted. It is a long time now since I knew that acute moment of bliss that comes from putting parched lips to a cup of cold water. The springs are still there to be enjoyed – all one needs is the original thirst. Questions and Tasks for the Analysis of the Text 1. Speak about Lauree Lee and the peculiarities of his style. 2. What is the tonality of the essay? Does it differ from the essays you have read in this textbook? What exactly makes it different? Does the fact that Lauree Lee was primarily a poet find its reflection in the style of the essay? Quote the text to support your opinion. 3. What is the topic addressed by the author? How does he treat it? 4. Comment on the title of the essay. Does the title reflect the problem discussed in the essay? �Содержание 5. Comment on the central thesis of the essay and the way it is presented. 6. What does the author mean by appetite? 7. How does the author extend his central thesis? What facts does he resort to support his thesis? How do the facts of his personal life find reflection in his treatment of the problem? 8. Discussing the problem of appetite the author treats it on a very broad scale addressing the modern way of life. What does he not like about modern life? How do the facts of his biography influence his perception of modern life? Do you share the author’s opinion? Express your own point of view the problem addressed in the essay. 9. What kind of conclusion does the author draw in the closing paragraph and how does he present it? 10. Comment on the stylistic peculiarities of the essay. Analyze the expressive means employed by the author and their stylistic effect. Biography and Autobiography as Nonfiction Genres �Содержание Biography and Autobiography as Non iction Genres “Biography is: a system in which the contradictions of a human life are unified” (José Ortega y Gasset) “Read no history: nothing but biography, for that is life without theory” (Benjamin Disraeli) Nonfiction literature encompasses a wide variety of writing. Nonfiction can be defined as any writing based on true or real-life experiences. There are enough types and styles of nonfiction to seem overwhelming. One way to help organize the various types is to split nonfiction into two subcategories: informational nonfiction and literary nonfiction. Informational nonfiction includes any writing that aims to inform or give facts. Literary nonfiction includes writing that is based on real world events, but is meant to entertain. Literary nonfiction reads like fiction, which means it has elements of a story, which includes characters, setting and plot. However, in nonfiction these elements must be real and not imaginary. The stories are meant to amuse the reader, as well as inform on true stories. The two major types of literary nonfiction are biography and autobiography. Let’s look closer at these two types of literary nonfiction. Biography The first type of literary nonfiction is the biography. A biography is a true story of a person’s life that is written by someone else. This true story has all the elements of fiction: characters, setting and plot. Those elements all come from a real person’s life, so the characters are real; the setting is an actual place, and the events truly happened. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, a biography is defined as “The process of recording the events and circumstances of another person’s life, esp. for publication (latterly in any of various written, recorded, or visual media); the documenting of individual life histories (and, later, other forms of thematic historical narrative), considered as a genre of writing or social history”. The key ingredient in a good biography is integrity – completeness and honesty. A biography with integrity is not simply hero worship or criticism but rather an effort to tell the truth about a life. More than a collection of facts, a biography explains the motives behind actions, the methods behind achievements, the lessons learned from setbacks. A biographer researches and uses personal letters, diaries, public documents, and interviews as sources of information. Many characteristics of good fiction appear also in biography: lively recounting of events: crisp, authentic dialogue; richness of detail; many-sided characterization. Though rooted in fact, the biography does not just report a life but makes that life rewarding, entertaining reading. To present fully the life of an individual, most biographies are book length. Biographical sketches, however, present only a few events that illustrate important characteristics of the �Содержание subject’s personality. In this way the author of a biographical sketch can capture the essence of a person’s life in a few carefully selected episodes or even in a single crucial event. Autobiography Another type of literary nonfiction is the autobiography. An autobiography is the story of a person’s life written by that person. The author of an autobiography re-creates personal events as objectively as possible and tries to see the pattern they form and the meaning they hold. The OED defines memoir as “autobiographical observations; reminiscences”. Autobiographies are the same as biographies except for one key difference: the story of a person’s life is told by that person. This means that in an autobiography, a person tells the story of his or her own life. Because of this, autobiographies are told in first-person point of view. This means that the narrator is in the story and uses the pronouns I, me and my. Another important concept to note about autobiographies is the ability to insert personal thoughts and opinions. Since the author writes about his own life, autobiographies can often be biased. This means that the author could present the information in order for him to be seen in a certain light. Sometimes weaknesses and failures can be excused or even skipped over. Not all autobiographers will do this, but it is in human nature to try to present oneself in the best light possible. It is important to be aware of this fact when reading an autobiography. Autobiographies and memoirs are similar in that they both are written in the first person and both are personal and talk about the author’s life. The difference is while autobiographies detail in chronological sequence the author’s life from birth to death, memoirs are concerned with emotional truths and focus on random aspects of the author’s life such as feelings or attitudes that stand out because they have had such an impact on the person’s life. The line between autobiographies and memoirs is fuzzy that they are often used interchangeably. �Содержание Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) Benjamin Franklin is best known as one of the Founding Fathers who drafted the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution of the United States. He was an inventor, scientist, printer, politician, freemason, diplomat and one of the most respected individuals of his time. His scientific pursuits included investigations into electricity, mathematics and mapmaking. He invented bifocal glasses and organized the first successful American lending library. A writer known for his wit and wisdom, Benjamin Franklin also published “Autobiography” and “Poor Richard’s Almanac” for the enrichment of which he borrowed or composed the utterances of worldly wisdom which are the basis of a large part of his reputation. Some of Franklin’s famous quotes include the following: • Having been poor is no shame, but being ashamed of it, is. • Well done is better than well said. • If Man could have Half his Wishes, he would double his Troubles. • Beware of little expenses; a small leak will sink a great ship. • Fools make feasts and wise men eat ’em. • He that lives upon Hope, dies fasting. • An empty bag will not stand upright. • Genius without education is like silver in the mine. • He that waits upon Fortune, is never sure of a Dinner. • Search others for their virtues, thy self for thy vices. • Love your Enemies, for they tell you your Faults. • No gains without pains. • Time is money. • Diligence is the mother of good luck. • Early to bed, early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise. • The poor have little, beggars none, the rich too much, enough not one. • God helps them that help themselves. Franklin’s “Autobiography” of is the unfinished record of his own life written from 1771 to 1790. This work has become one of the most famous and influential examples of an autobiography ever written. Editor Frank Woodworth Pine wrote: “Franklin is a good type of our American manhood. Although not the wealthiest or the most �Содержание powerful, he is undoubtedly, in the versatility of his genius and achievements, the greatest of our self-made men. The simple yet graphic story in the Autobiography of his steady rise from humble boyhood in a tallow-chandler shop, by industry, economy, and perseverance in selfimprovement, to eminence, is the most remarkable of all the remarkable histories of our selfmade men. It is in itself a wonderful illustration of the results possible to be attained in a land of unequaled opportunity by following Franklin’s maxims.” Benjamin Franklin articulated a belief in the virtue of common sense. In these excerpts from Franklin’s Autobiography, we see his honest pragmatism, his gentle humor, his humanity, his optimistic assurance that all men and women may better themselves through hard work and discipline. “Autobiography” is an example of the fulfillment of the American Dream. The model set forth by Franklin in this autobiography demonstrates the possibility to rise from rags to riches. His own rise from the lower middle class to one of the most admired men in the world proved that even undistinguished persons can become great figures of importance through industry and perseverance. Franklin’s “Autobiography” is also a reflection of the 18th century idealism. The 18th century was the age of men like John Locke and Isaac Newton. It is called the Age of Reason. Intellectualism flourished along with scientific and social advances. Many people optimistically believed that education and progress can help to perfect man and society. The ideals and forms of literature in Franklin’s age differ from the romantic and postromantic works. In his preference for reason, common sense, and experience over emotion or speculation, Franklin borrows from the English writers of the early eighteenth century. His satiric practice, especially his use of irony, reflects Franklin’s familiarity with the great works of Daniel Defoe and Jonathan Swift. Franklin’s style is primarily didactic because “Autobiography” was intended to be read partly as a self-help book. However, he uses a great deal of wit and humor, so as not to seem arrogant. Thus, Franklin’s book is not only a manual of strategies, but a diverting narrative. The entertaining character increases the utility of the work as an educational tool, and, perhaps, the educational elements make the narrative more captivating. The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin (an extract) A VEGETABLE DIET When about 16 years of age I happened to meet with a book, written by one Tryon, recommending a vegetable diet, I determined to go into it. My brother being yet unmarried, did not keep house, but boarded himself and his apprentices in another family. My refusing to eat flesh occasioned an inconveniency, and I was frequently chid for my singularity. I made myself acquainted with Tryon’s manner of preparing some of his dishes, such as boiling potatoes or rice, making hasty pudding, and a few others, and then proposed to my brother, that if he would give me, weekly, half the money he paid for my board, I would board myself. He instantly agreed to it, and I presently found that I could save half what he paid me. This was an additional fund for buying books. But I had another advantage in it. My brother and the rest �Содержание going from the printing-house to their meals, I remained there alone, and, despatching presently my light repast, which often was no more than a bisket or a slice of bread, a handful of raisins or a tart from the pastry-cook’s, and a glass of water, had the rest of the time till their return for study, in which I made the greater progress, from that greater clearness of head and quicker apprehension which usually attend temperance in eating and drinking. ...In my first voyage from Boston, being becalmed off Block Island, our people set about catching cod, and hauled up a great many. Hitherto I had stuck to my resolution of not eating animal food, and on this occasion I considered, with my master Tryon, the taking of every fish as a kind of unprovoked murder, since none of them had, or ever could, do us any injury that might justify the slaughter. All this seemed very reasonable. But I had formerly been a great lover of fish, and, when this came hot out of the frying- pan, it smelt admirably well. I balanced some time between principle and inclination, till I recollected that, when the fish were opened, I saw smaller fish taken out of their stomachs; then thought I, “If you eat one another, I don’t see why we mayn’t eat you.” So I dined upon cod very heartily, and continued to eat with other people, returning only now and then occasionally to a vegetable diet. So convenient a thing is it to be a reasonable creature, since it enables one to find or make a reason for every thing one has a mind to do. MORAL PERFECTION It was about this time I conceived the bold and arduous project of arriving at moral perfection. I wished to live without committing any fault at any time; I would conquer all that either natural inclination, custom, or company might lead me into. As I knew, or thought I knew, what was right and wrong, I did not see why I might not always do the one and avoid the other. But I soon found I had undertaken a task of more difficulty than I had imagined. While my care was employed in guarding against one fault, I was often surprised by another, – habit took the advantage of inattention; inclination was sometimes too strong for reason. I concluded, at length, that the mere speculative conviction that it was our interest to be completely virtuous, was not sufficient to prevent our slipping; and that the contrary habits must be broken, and good ones acquired and established, before we can have any dependence on a steady, uniform rectitude of conduct. For this purpose I therefore contrived the following method. In the various enumerations of the moral virtues I had met with in my reading, I found the catalogue more or less numerous, as different writers included more or fewer ideas under the same name. Temperance, for example, was by some confined to eating and drinking, while by others it was extended to mean the moderating every other pleasure, appetite, inclination, or passion, bodily or mental, even to our avarice and ambition. I proposed to myself, for the sake of clearness, to use rather more names, with fewer ideas annexed to each, than a few names with more ideas; and I included under 13 names of virtues all that at that time occurred to me as necessary or desirable, and annexed to each a short precept, which fully expressed the extent I gave to its meaning. These names of virtues, with their precepts, were: 1. TEMPERANCE. Eat not to dullness; drink not to elevation. �Содержание 2. SILENCE. Speak not but what may benefit others or yourself; avoid trifling conversation. 3. ORDER. Let all your things have their places; let each part of your business have its time. 4. RESOLUTION. Resolve to perform what you ought; perform without fail what you resolve. 5. FRUGALITY. Make no expense but to do good to others or yourself; i.e., waste nothing. 6. INDUSTRY. Lose no time; be always employed in something useful; cut off all unnecessary actions. 7. SINCERITY. Use no hurtful deceit; think innocently and justly, and, if you speak, speak accordingly. 8. JUSTICE. Wrong none by doing injuries, or omitting the benefits that are your duty. 9. MODERATION. Avoid extremes; forbear resenting injuries so much as you think they deserve. 10. CLEANLINESS. Tolerate no uncleanliness in body, clothes, or habitation. 11. TRANQUILITY. Be not disturbed at trifles, or at accidents common or unavoidable. 12. CHASTITY. Rarely use venery but for health or offspring, never to dullness, weakness, or the injury of your own or another’s peace or reputation. 13. HUMILITY. Imitate Jesus and Socrates. My intention being to acquire the habitude of all these virtues, I judged it would be well not to distract my attention by attempting the whole at once, but to fix it on one of them at a time; and, when I should be master of that, then to proceed to another, and so on, till 1 should have gone thro’ the 13; and, as the previous acquisition of some might facilitate the acquisition of certain others, I arranged them with that view, as they stand above. Temperance first, as it tends to procure that coolness and clearness of head, which is so necessary where constant vigilance was to be kept up, and guard maintained against the unremitting attraction of ancient habits, and the force of perpetual temptations. This being acquired and established, Silence would be more easy; and my desire being to gain knowledge at the same time that I improved in virtue, and considering that in conversation it was obtained rather by the use of the ears than of the tongue, and therefore wishing to break a habit I was getting into of prattling, punning, and joking, which only made me acceptable to trifling company, I gave Silence the second �Содержание place. This and the next, Order, I expected would allow me more time for attending to my project and my studies. Resolution, once become habitual, would keep me firm in my endeavors to obtain all the subsequent virtues, – Frugality and Industry freeing me from my remaining debt, and producing affluence and independence, would make more easy the practice of Sincerity and Justice, etc., etc. Conceiving then, that agreeably to the advice of Pythagoras (1 Greek philosopher, c. 582-c, 507 b.c.) in his Golden Verses, daily examination would be necessary, I contrived the following method for conducting that examination. The precept of Order requiring that every part of my business should have its allotted time, one page in my little book contained the following scheme of employment for the 24 hours of a natural day. 5 6 7 Rise, wash and address Powerful Goodness(’Franklin s daily prayer). – Con trivc day’s business, and take the resolution of the day; prosecute the present study, and breakfast 8 9 10 11 Work 12 1 Read, or overlook my accounts, and dine 2 3 4 5 Work EVENING. Question. What good have I done to-day? 6 7 8 9 Put things in their places. Supper. Music or diversion, or conversation. Examination of the day. NIGHT 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 Sleep THE MORNING Question. What good shall I do this day? NOON My list of virtues contained at first but 12; but a Quaker friend having kindly informed me that I was generally thought proud; that my pride showed itself frequently in conversation; that I was not content with being in the right when discussing any point, but was overbearing, and rather insolent, of which he convinced me by mentioning several instances; I determined endeavouring to cure myself, if I could, of this vice or folly among the rest, and I added Humility to my list, giving an extensive meaning to the word. 1 cannot boast of much success in acquiring the reality of this virtue, but I had a good deal with regard to the appearance of it. In reality, there is, perhaps, no one of our national passions so hard to subdue as Pride. �Содержание Disguise it, struggle with it, beat it down, stifle it, mortify it as much as one pleases, it is still alive, and will every now and then peep out and show itself; you will see it, perhaps, often in this history; for, even if I could conceive that 1 had completely overcome it, I should probably be proud of my humility. Questions and Tasks for the Analysis of the Text 1. Find some facts in Benjamin Franklin’s biography that could explain his inclination towards prudence and pragmatism. 2. What experience does the author describe at the beginning of the text? Does he mean only to tell about an event from his life or to educate? What is his attitude to the experience? Is he proud, ashamed, or ironic? Focus on the use of a great deal of detail in Franklin’s writing. Comment on the choice of words. 3. What event pushed the author to break his “resolution of not eating animal food”? How does he justify himself? Is his reasoning emotional or rational? Is it good to be “a reasonable creature”? Analyse the language means that convey the author’s irony. 4. Why does the author call moral perfection a “project”? How do morality and reason interact in Franklin’s approach? What difficulty did Franklin face trying to “conquer” his bad habits? 5. How does the author happen to come to number 13 defining the moral virtues? How does he describe his strategy? What syntactical expressive means contribute to the speaker’s stepwise logic? 6. What communicative type of sentence does the author use to introduce the virtues? Do Franklin’s aphoristic maxims sound inspirational? What stylistic devices contribute to the rhythmical structure of the sentences? What allusions does the author make formulating the last virtue? Does he do it because this virtue defies a rational explanation? 7. Do we find a lot of imagery in Franklin’s text? What language means help to capture the reader’s attention and follow the chain of discourse? 8. What is the author’s logic in justifying the priority of some virtues? Analyse the manner in which his argumentation is given. 9. What expression does the author choose to describe daily routine? 10. What is Daniel Defoe’s novel that presents the similar fixation on detail, order and scheming? Is the author’s pragmatism encouraging? Do you feel like unhesitantly starting to develop oneself under Franklin’s guidance? 11. Why does the author call pride a national passion? What virtues, or vices, are among the Russian national passions? Does the author believe that exercising humility one can overcome pride? 12. Prepare the final analysis of the text pointing out the main features of Benjamin Franklin’s style of writing. �Содержание Arthur Evelyn St. John Waugh (1903–1966) Born in London, Evelyn Waugh was the second son of noted editor and publisher Arthur Waugh. He was brought up in upper middle class circumstances, although his parents’ address in Golders Green embarrassed him. His only sibling was his older brother Alec, who also became a writer. Both his father and his brother had been educated at Sherborne, an English public school, but Alec had been asked to leave during his final and he had then published a controversial novel, The Loom of Youth which was deemed injurious to Sherborne’s reputation. The school therefore refused to take Evelyn, and his father sent him to Lancing College, an institution of lesser social prestige with a strong High Church Anglican character. After Lancing, he attended Hertford College, Oxford as a history scholar. There, Waugh neglected academic work and was known as much for his artwork as for his writing. His social life at Oxford would provide the background for some of his most characteristic later writing. Waugh’s final exam results qualified him only for a third-class degree. He was prevented from remaining in residence for the extra term that would have been required of him and he left Oxford in 1924 without taking his degree. In 1925 he taught at a private school in Wales. He was briefly apprenticed to a cabinet-maker and afterwards maintained an interest in marquetry, to which his novels have been compared in their intricate inlaid subplots. Waugh also provided the artwork for many of his books having been greatly inspired by a chance meeting with Pablo Picasso and Salvador Dalí at the Slade School of Fine Art in Bloomsbury. Waugh also worked as a journalist before he published his first novel in 1928, Decline and Fall. The title is from Gibbon, but whereas the Georgian historian charted the bankruptcy and dissolution of the Roman Empire, Waugh’s was a witty account of quite a different sort of dissolution, following the career of the harmless Paul Pennyfeather, a student of divinity, as he is accidentally expelled from Oxford for indecency. Waugh entered into a brief, unhappy marriage in 1928 to the Hon. Evelyn Florence Margaret Winifred Gardner, youngest daughter of Lord Burghclere and Lady Winifred Herbert. Their friends called them “He-Evelyn” and “She-Evelyn”. The marriage ended in divorce in 1930. Waugh converted to Catholicism and, after his marriage was annulled by the Church, he married Laura Herbert, a Catholic, daughter of Aubrey Herbert, and a cousin of his first wife. This marriage was successful and lasting the rest of his life, producing seven children, one of whom, Mary, died in infancy. �Содержание Waugh’s fame continued to grow between the wars, based on his satires of contemporary upper class English society, written in prose that was seductively simple and elegant. His style was often inventive. His conversion to Roman Catholicism in 1930 was a watershed in his life and his writing. It elevated Catholic themes in his work, and aspects of his deep and sincere faith, both implicit and explicit, can be found in all of his later work. Some of Waugh’s best-loved and best-known novels come from this period. Brideshead Revisited (1945) is an evocation of a vanished pre-war England. It’s an extraordinary work which in many ways has come to define Waugh and his view of his world. It not only painted a rich picture of life in England and at Oxford University at a time (before World War II) which Waugh himself loved and embellished in the novel, but it allowed him to share his feelings about his Catholic faith, principally through the actions of his characters. Much of Waugh’s wartime experience is reflected in the Sword of Honour trilogy. It consists of three novels, Men at Arms (1952), Officers and Gentlemen (1955) and Unconditional Surrender (1961), which loosely parallel his wartime experiences. Critics felt that these were some of the best books written about the war. The period after the war saw Waugh living with his family in the West Country, first at Piers Court, and from 1956 onwards, at Combe Florey, Somerset, where he enjoyed the life of a country gentleman and continued to write. Evelyn Waugh died, aged 62, on 10 April 1966, after attending a Latin Mass on Easter Sunday. He suffered a heart attack at his home, Combe Florey. He is buried at Combe Florey, Somerset. The American conservative commentator William F. Buckley, Jr. found in Waugh “the greatest English novelist of the century”, while Buckley’s liberal counterpart Gore Vidal called him “our time’s first satirist”. General Conversation: Myself… A winter evening; a sombre and secluded library; leather bound unread, unreadable books lining the walls; below the windows, subdued, barely perceptible, like the hum of a mowing machine in summer on distant lawns’ the sound of London traffic; overhead, in blue and white plaster, an elegant Adam ceiling; a huge heap of glowing coal in the marble fireplace, a leather topped, mahogany writing table; the pen poised undecisively above the foolscap – what is more needed to complete the picture of a leisured litterateur upon his delicate labour? Alas! Too much. An elderly man has just entered, picked up a French novel and glanced at me resentfully. This is not my library. Nor, in the words of a French exercise, are these my pens, ink or paper. I am in my Club, in the room set aside for silence and after-luncheon sleep. It is three days past the date on which I promised delivery of copy. Leisured literature my foot. “Eats well, sleeps well, but the moment he sees a job of work he comes over queer.” That is my trouble, an almost fanatical aversion from pens, ink or paper. I keep seeing books – though not, I think, as often as I used – about young men who have literary souls and are thwarted and even made to go into the family business and become mere money-makers and breeders of children instead of great writers. My plight is the exact opposite. I was driven into writing because I found it was the only way a lazy and ill-educated �Содержание man could get a decent living. I am not complaining about the wages. They always seem to me disproportionately high. What I mind so much is the work. Of course, in my case, writing happens to be the family business; that takes away some of the glamour. My father is a literary critic and publisher. I think he can claim to have more books dedicated to him that any living man. They used to stand together on his shelves, among hundreds of inscribed copies from almost every English writer of eminence, until on one of my rare, recent visits to my home, I inadvertently set the house on fire, destroying the carefully garnered fruits of a lifetime of literary friendships. I remember in childhood the Saturday morning hush over the home, when he was at work on his weekly article. I remember the numerous, patronising literary elders who frequented our table. My brother took to the trade without a moment’s reluctance. He wrote a best seller before he was eighteen and has been at it uninterruptedly ever since. You can see his fingers twitching for a pen as he talks to you. I held out until I was twenty-four, swimming manfully against the tide; then I was sucked under. I tried everything I could think of first. After an inglorious career at the University I tried to be a painter, and went daily for some months to an Art School crowded with young women in pinafores whose highest ambition was to design trademarks for patient medicines. We stood at easels in a large, hideously overheated studio and drew from the nude from ten until four. Heavens, how badly I drew! The trouble about my upbringing was that whereas my family knew very well how badly I wrote, they had rosy illusions about my drawing. They could turn out a fine graphic picture in paper games, but none of them had drawn from the nude from ten till four, and they were fatally encouraging about my horrible, charcoal cartoons. It took me about three months to realise that I should not ever be up to designing a trade-mark. Meanwhile the annual deficit of expenditure over allowance had reached a formidable total and I looked for some way of making money – or, at any rate, of avoiding spending it. There are only two sorts of jobs open under the English social system – domestic service and education. However abominable one’s record, though one may be fresh from prison or lunatic asylum, one can always look after the silver or teach the young. I had not the right presence for a footman, so I chose the latter. For eighteen happy months I taught the young. I taught them almost everything – classics, history, modern languages, boxing, tennis and Rugby football – games I had never before played – the elements of religion, shooting and (believe it or not) drawing. At first the boys despised me, but I bought a motor bicycle and from that moment was the idol of the school. I bribed them to behave well by letting them take down the engine. I thought the system was working well, but after the fourth term I got the sack. My next plan was to be a carpenter, and for a winter I went regularly to classes in a government polytechnic. Those were delightful days, under the tuition of a brilliant and completely speechless little cabinet-maker who could explain nothing and demonstrate everything. To see him cutting concealed dovetails gave me the thrill which, I suppose, others get from seeing their favourite batsman at the wicket or bullfighter in the ring. It was a charming class, too. There was one young woman there who, during the whole time I was there, was engaged in sawing longways an immense log of teak. She worked and worked at it hour by �Содержание hour and had cut about a yard when I left. I often wonder if she is still at it. There were two Egyptians who did veneering of exquisite skill and the most atrocious designs conceivable. I never got so far as veneering curved surfaces, but I made an indestructible mahogany bedtable, which I gave to my father, and which survived the fire. It soon became apparent, however, that it would be many years before I should qualify for a wage, and then for a few shillings a week. That did not worry me, but I had an inclination to get married, so I looked for more remunerative work. Some dreary weeks followed during which, though I cannot claim to have trudged the streets without food, I certainly made a great number of fruitless and rather humiliating calls upon prospective employers. Dickens held it against his parents that they tried to force him into a blacking factory instead of letting him write. The last firm at which I solicited a job was engaged, among other things, in the manufacture of blacking. If I wasn’t employed there I should be driven to Literature. But the manager was relentless. It was no use my thinking of blacking. That was not for the likes of me. I had better make up my mind and settle down to the humble rut which fate had ordained for me. I must write a book. The value of writing books is that it gives a market for articles. So here I am, pen poised undecisively over the foolscap, earning my living. But I am not utterly enslaved. I still have dreams of shaking off the chains of creative endeavour. Rimbaud got away from it and became a gunrunner. Vanbrugh gave up writing plays to build the most lovely houses in England. Disraeli and A.P. Herbert went into politics and did themselves proud. John Buchan is lording in Quebec. Boulestin took to cooking. Perhaps there is a chance of freedom. Questions and Tasks for the Analysis of the Text 1. Give brief information about the author of the essay. What is the most characteristic feature of Evelyn Waugh’s manner of writing? 2. What is the subject matter of the essay? Is it reflected in the title? Comment on the aposiopesis in the title and its effect. What is the central thesis of the essay? How is it presented? 3. What is the general tone of the essay? How is it sustained throughout the essay? How does this essay differ from the essay by Virginia Woolf, which is also about books and writers? What is the effect of the first-person narration? 4. Analyse the first paragraph of the essay. What function does it play in the composition of the essay? Does it not produce the effect of a piece of classical British painting on you? If your answer is “yes” how is this effect achieved? How does the author manage to create a synaesthetic effect? Comment on the syntactic arrangement of the paragraph and the concluding lines of it. 5. How is the second paragraph connected with the first one? Comment on the word “litterateur” employed by the writer. What kind of self-portrait does Evelyn Waugh make? What language means are used to paint this portrait with the help of words? 6. How does the author explain the fact of his becoming a writer? Analyze the paragraphs �Содержание devoted to the description of his family business. What is the writer’s tone in describing it? How is it created? Does he treat writing as a noble occupation or otherwise? What is the connotation of the metaphor “garnered fruits of a lifetime of literary friendships”? 7. Analyse the paragraphs devoted to the description of his futile attempts “to swim against the tide”. What is the point of his satire pointed at? Comment on the means of achieving a humorous effect in the description of his Odyssey. Pay special attention to the choice of words and the imagery of the passage. Analyse the metaphors he employs. Are they original or hackneyed? How can you explain his choice? 8. The last paragraph dealing with the outcome of his futile attempts to avoid the career of a writer opens with the allusion to Charles Dickens. What is its effect? Is the choice of Dickens random? Comment on the words: “It was no use my thinking of blacking… I must write a book”. Whose words are these? 9. Study the closing paragraph of the essay. What is the effect of the numerous allusions in it? What are the key words of this paragraph and, perhaps, the whole essay? Try and state the central thesis of the essay. 10. In an introduction to the chapter about biography and autobiography we read: “Since the author writes about his own life, autobiographies can often be biased. This means that the author could present the information in order for him to be seen in a certain light. Sometimes weaknesses and failures can be excused or even skipped over. Not all autobiographers will do this, but it is in human nature to try to present oneself in the best light possible” Does this opinion apply to the autobiographic essay we have just read. Does Evelyn Waugh try to present himself in the best light possible? 11. Sum up your observations of Evelyn Waugh’s manner of writing as it manifests itself in the essay. In his other essay “Literary style in England and America” Evelyn Waugh wrote: “Individuality needs little explanation. It is the hand-writing, the tone of voice that makes a work recognisable as being by a particular artist…” and also: “One thing I hold as certain that a writer, if he is to develop, must concern himself more and more with Style… He cannot hope to interest the majority of his readers in his progress. It is his own interest that is at stake. Style alone can keep him from being bored with his own work. In youth high spirits carry one over a book or two. The world is full of discoveries that demand expression. Later a writer must face the choice of becoming an artist or a prophet. He can shut himself up at his desk and selfishly seek pleasure in the perfection of his own skill or he can pace about, dictating dooms and exhortations on the topics of the day. The recluse at the desk has a bare chance of giving abiding pleasure to others; the publicist has none at all.” Judging by this essay, can we say that Evelyn Waugh acts up to his words? Give facts from the text to support your opinion. �Содержание Margaret Eleanor Atwood (born 1939) Margaret Eleanor Atwood (born November 18, 1939) is a Canadian author, poet, critic, essayist, feminist and social campaigner. She is among the most-honoured authors of fiction in recent history; she is a winner of the Arthur C. Clarke Award and Prince of Asturias award for Literature, has been shortlisted for the Booker Prize five times, winning once, and has been a finalist for the Governor General’s Award seven times, winning twice. While she may be best known for her work as a novelist, she is also an award winning poet, having published 15 books of poetry to date. Many of her poems have been inspired by myths, and fairy tales, which were an interest of hers from an early age. Atwood has also published short stories in Tamarack Review, Alphabet, Harper’s, CBC Anthology, Ms., Saturday Night, Playboy, and many other magazines. Born in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, Atwood is the second of three children of Margaret Dorothy (née Killam), a former dietitian and nutritionist, and Carl Edmund Atwood, an entomologist. Due to her father’s ongoing research in forest entomology, Atwood spent much of her childhood in the backwoods of Northern Quebec and back and forth between Ottawa, Sault Ste. Marie, and Toronto. She did not attend school full-time until she was 11 years old in sixth grade. She became a voracious reader of literature, Dell pocketbook mysteries, Grimm’s Fairy Tales, Canadian animal stories, and comic books. She attended Leaside High School in Leaside, Toronto and graduated in 1957. Atwood began writing at the age of six and realized she wanted to write professionally when she was 16. In 1957, she began studying at Victoria University in the University of Toronto. In late 1961, after winning the E.J. Pratt Medal for her privately printed book of poems, Double Persephone, she began graduate studies at Harvard’s Radcliffe College with a Woodrow Wilson fellowship. She obtained a master’s degree from Radcliffe in 1962 and pursued further graduate studies at Harvard University for 2 years, but never finished because she never completed a dissertation on “The English Metaphysical Romance” in 1967. She has taught at the University of British Columbia (1965), Sir George Williams University in Montreal (1967–68), the University of Alberta (1969–70), York University in Toronto (1971–72), and New York University, where she was Berg Professor of English. The Handmaid’s Tale received the very first Arthur C. Clarke Award for the best science fiction novel first published in the United Kingdom during the previous year, in 1987. It was also nominated for the 1986 Nebula Award, and the 1987 Prometheus Award, both science fiction awards. �Содержание Atwood was at one time offended at the suggestion that The Handmaid’s Tale or Oryx and Crake were science fiction, insisting to The Guardian that they were speculative fiction instead: “Science fiction has monsters and spaceships; speculative fiction could really happen”. She told the Book of the Month Club: “Oryx and Crake is a speculative fiction, not a science fiction proper. It contains no intergalactic space travel, no teleportation, no Martians” and on BBC Breakfast explained that science fiction, as opposed to what she wrote, was “talking squids in outer space”. The latter phrase particularly rankled among advocates of science fiction, and frequently recurs when her writing is discussed. Atwood has since said that she does at times write science fiction, and that Handmaid’s Tale and Oryx and Crake can be designated as such. She clarified her meaning on the difference between speculative and science fiction, while admitting that others use the terms interchangeably: “For me, the science fiction label belongs on books with things in them that we can’t yet do... speculative fiction means a work that employs the means already to hand and that takes place on Planet Earth”, and said that science fictional narratives give a writer the ability to explore themes in ways that realistic fiction cannot. Ultimately, according to her theories in works such as Survival and her exploration of similar themes in her fiction, Atwood considers Canadian literature as the expression of Canadian identity. According to this literature, Canadian identity has been defined by a fear of nature, by settler history and by unquestioned adherence to the community. In 1968, Atwood married Jim Polk, whom she divorced in 1973. She formed a relationship with fellow novelist Graeme Gibson soon after and moved to Alliston, Ontario, north of Toronto. In 1976 their daughter, Eleanor Jess Atwood Gibson, was born. Atwood returned to Toronto in 1980. She divides her time between Toronto and Pelee Island, Ontario. Atwood has strong views on environmental issues, such as suggesting that gas-powered leaf blowers and lawn mowers be banned, and has made her own home more energy efficient by installing awnings and skylights that open, and by not having air-conditioning Great Unexpectations In 1960 I was nineteen years old. I was in third-year college in Toronto, Ontario, which was not then known as People City or The Paris of the Northeast; but as Hogtown, which was not an inaccurate description. I had never eaten an avocado or been on an airplane or encountered a croissant or been south of Vermont. Panty hose had not yet hit the market; neither had the Pill. We were still doing garter belts and repression. Abortion was not a word you said out loud, and lesbians might as well have been mythological hybrids, like Sphinxes; in any case I was quite certain I had never met one. I wanted to be – no, worse–was determined to be, was convinced I was – a writer. I was scared to death. I was scared to death for a couple of reasons. For one thing, I was Canadian, and the prospects for being a Canadian and a writer, both at the same time, in 1960, were dim. The only writers I had encountered in high school had been dead and English, and in university we barely studied American writers, much less Canadian ones. Canadian writers, it was assumed – by my professors, my contemporaries, and myself – were a freak of nature, like duck-billed platypuses. Logically they ought not to exist, and when they did so anyway, they were just �Содержание pathetic imitations of the real thing. This estimate was borne out by statistics: for those few who managed, despite the reluctance of publishers, to struggle into print (five novels in English in 1960), two hundred copies of a book of poetry was considered average to good, and a thousand made a novel a Canadian best seller. I would have to emigrate, I concluded gloomily. I faced a future of scrubbing restaurant floors in England – where we colonials could go, then, much more easily than we could to the United States – writing masterpieces in a freezing cold garret at night, and getting T.B., like Keats. Such was my operatic view of my own future. But it was more complicated than that, because, in addition to being a Canadian, I was also a woman. In some ways this was an advantage. Being a male writer in Canada branded you a sissy, but writing was not quite so unthinkable for a woman, ranking as it did with flower painting and making roses out of wool. As one friend of my mother’s put it, trying to take a cheerful view of my eccentricity, “Well, that’s nice dear, because you can do it at home, can’t you?” She was right, as it turned out, but at that moment she aroused nothing but loathing in my adolescent soul. Home, hell. It was garret or nothing. What did she think I was, inauthentic? However, most people were so appalled by my determination to be a writer that no one even thought of saying I couldn’t because I was a girl. That sort of thing was not said to me until later, by male writers, by which time it was too late. Strangely, no one was pushing early marriage, not in my case. Canada, being a cultural backwater, had not been swept by the wave of Freudianism that had washed over the United States in the fifties – Canadian women were not yet expected to be fecund and passive in order to fulfill themselves – and there were still some bluestockings around in the educational system, women who warned us not to get silly about boys too soon and throw away our chances. What my elders had in mind for me was more along academic lines. Something, that is to say, with a salary. But, since gender is prior to nationality, the advantages of being a Canadian woman writer were canceled out by the disadvantages of being a woman writer. I’d read the biographies, which were not encouraging. Jane Austen never married Mr. Darcy. Emily Bronte died young, Charlotte in childbirth. George Eliot never had children and was ostracized for living with a married man. Emily Dickinson flitted; Christina Rossetti looked at life through the wormholes in a shroud. Some had managed to combine writing with what I considered to be a normal life – Mrs. Gaskell, Harriet Beecher Stowe – but everyone knew they were second rate. My choices were between excellence and doom on the one hand, and mediocrity and cosiness on the other. I gritted my teeth, set my face to the wind, gave up double dating, and wore hornrims and a scowl so I would not be mistaken for a puffball. It was in this frame of mind that I read Robert Graves’s The White Goddess, which further terrified me. Graves did not dismiss women. In fact he placed them right at the center of his poetic theory; but they were to be inspirations rather than creators, and a funny sort of inspiration at that. They were to be incarnations of the White Goddess herself, alternately loving and destructive, and men who got involved with them ran the risk of disembowelment or worse. A woman just might – might, mind you – have a chance of becoming a decent poet, but only if she too took on the attributes of the White Goddess and spent her time seducing men and then doing them in. All this sounded a little strenuous, and appeared to rule out �Содержание domestic bliss. It wasn’t my idea of how men and women should get on together – raking up leaves in the backyard, like my mom and dad – but who was I to contradict the experts? There was no one else in view giving me any advice on how to be a writer, though female. Graves was it. That would be my life, then. To the garret and the T.B. I added the elements of enigma and solitude. I would dress in black. I would learn to smoke cigarettes, although they gave me headaches and made me cough, and drink something romantic and unusually bad for you, such as absinthe. I would live by myself, in a suitably painted attic (black) and have lovers whom I would discard in appropriate ways, though I drew the line at bloodshed. (I was, after all, a nice Canadian girl.) I would never have children. This last bothered me a lot, as before this I had always intended to have some, and it seemed unfair, but White Goddesses did not have time for children, being too taken up with cannibalistic sex, and Art came first. I would never, never own an automatic washer-dryer. Sartre, Samuel Beckett, Kafka, and Ionesco, I was sure, did not have major appliances, and these were the writers I most admired. I had no concrete ideas about how the laundry would get done, but it would only be my own laundry, I thought mournfully – no fuzzy sleepers, no tiny T-shirts – and such details could be worked out later. I tried out the garrets, which were less glamorous than expected; so was England, and so were the cigarettes, which lasted a mere six months. There wasn’t any absinthe to be had, so I tried bad wine, which made me sick. It began to occur to me that maybe Robert Graves didn’t have the last word on women writers, and anyway I wanted to be a novelist as well as a poet, so perhaps that would let me off the homicide. Even though Sylvia Plath and Anne Sexton had been setting new, high standards in self-destructiveness for female poets, and people had begun asking me not whether but when I was going to commit suicide (the only authentic woman poet is a dead woman poet?), I was wondering whether it was really all that necessary for a woman writer to be doomed, any more than it was necessary for a male writer to be a drunk. Wasn’t this just some entire sort of postromantic collective delusion? If Shakespeare could have kids and avoid suicide, then so could I, dammit. When Betty Friedan and Simone de Beauvoir came my way, like shorebirds heralding land, I read them with much interest. They got a lot right, for me, but there was one thing they got wrong. They were assuring me that I didn’t have to get married and have children. But what I wanted was someone to tell me I could. And so I did. The marriage and the children came in two lots – marriage with one, child with another – but they did come. This is the part that will sound smug, I suppose, but I also suppose it’s not that much smugger than my black-sweatered, garter-belted, black-stockinged, existential pronouncements at the age of nineteen. I now live a life that is pretty close to the leaves-in-the-backyard model I thought would have been out of bounds forever. Instead of rotting my brains with absinthe, I bake (dare I admit it?) chocolate chip cookies, and I find that doing the laundry with the aid of my washer-dryer is one of the more relaxing parts of my week. I worry about things like remembering Parents’ Day at my daughter’s school and running out of cat food, though I can only afford these emotional luxuries with the aid of some business assistants and a large man who likes kids and cats and food, and has an ego so solid it isn’t threatened by mine. This state of affairs was not achieved without struggle, some of it �Содержание internal – did an addiction to knitting brand me as an inauthentic writer? – but it was reached. The White Goddess still turns up in my life, but mainly as a fantasy projection on the part of certain male book reviewers, who seem to like the idea of my teeth sinking into some cringing male neck. I think of this as fifties nostalgia. As for writing, yes. You can do it at home. Questions and Tasks for the Analysis of the Text 1. Give the most important facts of Margaret Atwood’s biography which are important for the interpretation of the essay. 2. Comment on the title of the essay. Is the title suggestive of the central thesis of the essay or is it rather vague? What is the central thesis of the essay? Does the writer state it directly or do we have to infer it? How does she support her thesis? 3. In what manner is the essay written? What is the tonality of the essay and how is it created? 4. Comment on the way she presents her self-portarait and the atmosphere in which she lived. How does she describe the position of Canada in the world? Pay special attention to the role of various habitual things which serve as the markers of the epoch. How did she estimate her chances of becoming a writer? What were the two main obstacles on the path to writing? What is the role of the allusions in the essay? 5. Comment on the issues of gender addressed in the essay and the manner in which Margaret Atwood discusses the gender issue. 6. What was the effect of Robert Graves’ “White Goddess” on her? Analyze the paragraph in which she draws her prospect on the way to becoming a writer and the things she would have to sacrifice. Did these predictions come true? 7. Analyze the final paragraphs of the essay and comment on the message they contain. Is this message presented directly or indirectly? Comment on the concluding sentence of the essay: “As for writing, yes. You can do it at home”. 8. Summarize your answers and prepare the final analysis of the essay. Essays for Self-Guided Analysis H.G. Wells. Ellis Island Carl Sandburg. A Lincoln Preface Wystan Hugh Auden. Postscript: The Almighty Dollar Susan Sontag. Beauty �Содержание Essays for Self-Guided Analysis H.G. Wells. Ellis Island Carl Sandburg. A Lincoln Preface Wystan Hugh Auden. Postscript: The Almighty Dollar Susan Sontag. Beauty �Содержание H.G. Wells. Ellis Island Herbert George Wells (1866–1946), the English novelist and journalist, was born in Kent, the son of a lady’s maid and a small shopkeeper who also played professional cricket. Wells had a spotty education but was an omnivorous reader and after failing to make a go at various apprenticeships, won at eighteen a scholarship that enabled him to graduate from London University in 1888. After teaching science for a few years, Wells turned to journalism, and in 1895 wrote his first novel, The Time Machine, which was an immediate success and which was followed by a number of scientific romances, including The Invisible Man (1897), The War of the World (1898), and Tales of Space and Time (1899). By 1900 Wells had begun to turn his attention to sociology; he wrote several successful novels dealing with the aspirations of the lower-middle class: Kipps (1905), Tono-Bungay (1909), and The History of Mr. Polly (1910). He joined the socialist movement in 1903 and out of that commitment wrote many studies of society from a utopian perspective, a point of view that was shattered by World War I. After the War, he decided that only popular education could ensure human progress, so he wrote The Outline of History (1920), The Science of Life (1931), and The Work, Wealth and Happiness of Mankind (1932). Wells grew increasingly pessimistic during World War II and wrote several bleak depictions of mankind’s prospects. The following selection, however, from The Future in America (1906) shows Wells writing in his earlier, more optimistic vein. I visited Ellis Island yesterday. It changed to be a good day for my purpose. For the first time in its history this filter of immigrant humanity has this week proved inadequate to the demand upon it. It was choked, and half a score of gravid liners were lying uncomfortably up the harbor, replete with twenty thousand or so of crude Americans from Ireland and Poland and Italy and Syria and Finland and Albania; men, women, children, dirt, and bags together. Of immigration I shall have to write later; what concerns me now is chiefly the wholesale and multitudinous quality of that place and its work. I made my way with my introduction along white passages and through traps and a maze of metal lattices that did for a while succeed in catching and imprisoning me, to Commissioner Wachorn, in his quiet, green-toned office. There, for a time, I sat judicially and heard him deal methodically, swiftly, sympathetically, with case after case, a string of appeals against the sentences of deportation pronounced in the busy little courts below. First would come one dingy and strangely garbed group of wild-eyed aliens, and then another: Roumanian gypsies, South Italians, Ruthenians, Swedes, each under the intelligent guidance of a uniformed interpreter, and a case would be started, a report made to Washington, and they would drop out again, hopeful or sullen or fearful as the evidence might trend… Down-stairs we find the courts, and these seen, we traverse long refectories, long aisles of tables, and close-packed dormitories with banks of steel mattresses, tier above tier, and galleries and passages innumerable, perplexing intricacy that slowly grows systematic with the Commissioner’s explanations. �Содержание Here is a huge, gray, untidy waiting-room, like a big railway-depot room, full of a sinister crowd of miserable people, loafing about or sitting dejectedly, whom America refuses, and here a second and a third such chamber each with its tragic and evil-looking crowd that hates us, and that even ventures to groan and hiss at us a little for our glimpse of its large dirty spectacle of hopeless failure, and here, squalid enough indeed, but still to some degree hopeful, are the appeal cases as yet undecided. In one place, at a bank of ranges, works an army of men cooks, in another spins the big machinery of the Ellis Island laundry, washing blankets, drying blankets, day in and day out, a big clean steamy space of hurry and rotation. Then, I recall a neat apartment lined to the ceiling with little drawers, a card-index of the names and nationalities and significant circumstances of upward of a million and a half of people who have gone on and who are yet liable to recall. The central hall is the key of this impression. All day long, through an intricate series of metal pens, the long procession files, step by step, bearing bundles and trunks and boxes, past this examiner and that, past the quick, alert medical officers, the tallymen and the clerks. At every point immigrants are being picked out and set aside for further medical examination, for further questions, for the busy little courts; but the main procession satisfies conditions, passes on. It is a daily procession that, with a yard of space to each, would stretch over three miles, that any week in the year would more than equal in numbers that daily procession of the unemployed that is becoming a regular feature of the London winter, that in a year could put a cordon round London or New York of close-marching people, could populate a new Boston, that in a century – What in a century will it all amount to? … On they go, from this pen to that, pen by pen, toward a desk at a little metal wicket – the gate of America. Through this metal wicket drips the immigration stream – all day long, every two or three seconds an immigrant, with a valise or a bundle, passes the little desk and goes on past the well-managed money-changing place, past the carefully organized separating ways that go to this railway or that, past the guiding, protecting officials – into a new world. The great majority are young men and young women, between seventeen and thirty, good, youthful, hopeful, peasant stock. They stand in a long string, waiting to go through that wicket, with bundles, with little tin boxes, with cheap portmanteaus, with odd packages, in pairs, in families, alone, women with children, men with strings of dependents, young couples. All day that string of human beads waits there, jerks forward, waits again; all day and every day, constantly replenished, constantly dropping the end beads through the wicket, till the units mount to hundreds and the hundreds to thousands… Yes, Ellis Island is quietly immense. It gives one a visible image of one aspect at least of this world-large process of filling and growing and synthesis, which is America. “Look there!” said the Commissioner, taking me by the arm and pointing, and I saw a monster steamship far away, and already a big bulk looming up the Narrows. “It’s the Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse. She’s got – I forget the exact figures, but let us say – eight hundred and fifty-three more for us. She’ll have to keep them until Friday at the earliest. And there’s more behind her, and more strung out all across the Atlantic.” �Содержание In one record day this month 21,000 immigrants came into the port of New York alone; in one week over 50,000. This year the total will be 1,200,000 souls, pouring in, finding work at once, producing no fall in wages. They start digging and building and making. Just think of the dimensions of it! �Содержание Carl Sandburg from A Lincoln Preface Carl Sandburg (1878–1967) gained a knowledge and love of America and its people through much travel, as well as through a variety of odd jobs such as milk deliverer, firefighter, truck driver, house painter, and reporter. Sandburg won two Pulitzer Prizes, one for Collected Poems and one for his biography of Abraham Lincoln. Sandburg added new dimensions to the world’s understanding of Lincoln, showing him to be a man of strength as well as compassion, of tears as well as laughter. The following is an excerpt from the preface to Abraham Lincoln: The Prairie Years, the beginning of a sixvolume work about Lincoln. In the time of the April lilacs in the year 1865, a man in the city of Washington, D.C., trusted a guard to watch at a door, and the guard was careless, left the door, and the man was shot, lingered a night, passed away, was laid in a box, and carried north and west a thousand miles; bells sobbed; cities wore crepe; people stood with hats off as the railroad burial car came past at midnight, dawn, or noon. During the four years of time before he gave up the ghost, this man was clothed with despotic power, commanding the most powerful armies till then assembled in modern warfare, enforcing draft of soldiers, abolishing the right of habeas corpus, directing politically and spiritually the wild, massive forces loosed in civil war. Four billion dollars’ worth of property was taken from those who had been legal owners of it, confiscated, wiped out as by fire, at his instigation and executive direction; a class of chattel property recognized as lawful for two hundred years went to the scrap pile. When the woman who wrote Uncle Tom’s Cabin came to see him in the White House, he greeted her, “So you’re the little woman who wrote the book that made this great war,” and as they seated themselves at a fireplace, “I do love an open fire; I always had one to home”. As they were finishing their talk of the days of blood, he said, “I shan’t last long after it’s over”. An Illinois Congressman looked in on him as he had his face lathered for a shave in the White House, and remarked, “If anybody had told me that in a great crisis like this the people were going out to a little one-horse town and pick out a one-horse lawyer for President, I wouldn’t have believed it”. The answer was, “Neither would I. But it was a time when a man with a policy would have been fatal to the country. I never had a policy. I have simply tried to do what seemed best each day, as each day came”. “I don’t intend precisely to throw the Constitution overboard, but I will stick it in a hole if I can,” he told a Cabinet officer. The enemy was violating the Constitution to destroy the Union, he argued, and therefore, “I will violate the Constitution, if necessary, to save the Union”. He instructed a messenger to the Secretary of the Treasury, “Tell him not to bother himself about the Constitution, say that I have that sacred instrument here at the White House, and I am guarding it with great care”. His life, mind, and heart ran in contrasts. When his white kid gloves broke into tatters while �Содержание shaking hands at a White House reception, he remarked, “This looks like a general bustification”1. When he talked with an Ohio friend one day during the 1864 campaign, he mentioned one public man, and murmured, “He’s a thistle! I don’t see why God lets him live.” Of a devious Senator, he said, “He’s too crooked to lie still!” And of a New York editor, “In early life in the West, we used to make our shoes last a great while with much mending, and sometimes, when far gone, we found the leather so rotten the stitches would not hold. Greeley is so rotten that nothing can be done with him. He is not truthful; the stitches all tear out”. While the luck of war wavered and broke and came again, as generals failed and campaigns were lost, he held enough forces of the Union together to raise new armies and supply them, until generals were found who made war as victorious war has always been made, with terror, frightfulness, destruction, and valor and sacrifice past words of man to tell. His own speeches, letters, telegrams, and official messages during that war form the most significant and enduring document from any one man on why the war began, why it went on, and the dangers beyond its end. As the platoons filed before him at a review of an army corps, he asked, “What is to become of these boys when the war is over?” He was a chosen spokesman; yet there were times he was silent; nothing but silence could at those times have fitted a chosen spokesman; in the mixed shame and blame of the immense wrongs of two crashing civilizations, with nothing to say, he said nothing, slept not at all, and wept at those times in a way that made weeping appropriate, decent, majestic. His hat was shot off as he rode alone one night in Washington; a son he loved died as he watched at the bed; his wife was accused of betraying information to the enemy, until denials from him were necessary; his best companion was a fine-haired and brilliant son with a deformed palate and an impediment of speech; when a Pennsylvania Congressman told him the enemy had declared they would break into the city and hang him to a lamppost, he said he had considered “the violent preliminaries” to such a scene; on his left thumb was a scar where an ax had nearly chopped the thumb off when he was a boy; over one eye was a scar where he had been hit with a club in the hands of a man trying to steal the cargo off a Mississippi River flatboat; he threw a cashiered officer out of his room in the White House , crying, “I can bear censure, but not insult, I never wish to see your face again”. He rebuked with anger a woman who got to her knees to thank him for a pardon that saved her son from being shot at sunrise; and when an Iowa woman said she had journeyed out of her way to Washington just for a look at him, he grinned, “Well, in the matter of looking at one another, I have altogether the advantage”. He sent hundreds of telegrams, “Suspend death sentence” or “Suspend execution” of so-andso, who was to be shot at sunrise. The telegrams varied oddly at times, as in one, “If Thomas Samplogh, of the first Delaware Regiment, has been sentenced to death, and is not yet executed, suspend and report the case to me”. And another, “Is it Lieutenant Samuel B. Davis whose death sentence is commuted? If not done, let it be done”. 1 A. Lincoln coins this word from the verb “ to bust” by analogy with “ justification”. �Содержание While the war drums beat, he liked best, of all the stories told of him, one about two Quakeresses heard talking in a railway car. “I think that Jefferson will succeed.” “Why does thee think so?” “Because Jefferson is a praying man.” “And so is Abraham a praying man.” “Yes, but the Lord will think Abraham is joking.” An Indiana man at the White House heard him say, “Voorhees, don’t it seem strange to you that I, who could never so much as cut off the head of a chicken, should be elected, or selected, into the midst of all this blood?” Of men taking too fat profits out of the war, he said, “Where the carcass is there will the eagles be gathered together”. An enemy general, Longstreet, after the war, declared him to have been “the one matchless man in forty millions of people,” while one of his private secretaries, Hay, declared his life to have been the most perfect in its relationships and adjustments since that of Christ. Between the days in which he crawled as a baby on the dirt floor of a Kentucky cabin, and the time when he gave his final breath in Washington, he packed a rich life with work, thought, laughter, tears, hate, love. With vast reservoirs of the comic and the droll, and notwithstanding a mastery of mirth and nonsense, he delivered a volume of addresses and letters of terrible and serious appeal, with import beyond his own day, shot through here and there with far, thin ironies, with paragraphs having raillery of the quality of the Book of Job, and echoes as subtle as the whispers of wind in prairie grass. Perhaps no human clay pot has held more laughter and tears. The facts and myths of his life are to be an American possession, shared widely over the world, for thousands of years, as the traditions of Knute or Alfred, Lao-tse or Diogenes, Pericles or Caesar, are kept. This because he was not only a genius in this science of neighborly human relationships and an artist in the personal handling of life from day, but a Strange Friend and a Friendly Stranger to all forms of life that he met. He lived fifty-six years, of which fifty-two were lived in the West – the prairie years. �Содержание Wystan Hugh Auden. Postscript: The Almighty Dollar Political and technological developments are rapidly obliterating all cultural differences and it is possible that, in a not remote future, it will be impossible to distinguish human beings living on one area of the earth’s surface from those living on any other, but our different pasts have not yet been completely erased and cultural differences are still perceptible. The most striking difference between an American and a European is the difference in their attitudes towards money. Every European knows, as a matter of historical fact, that, in Europe, wealth could only be acquired at the expense of other human beings, either by conquering them or by exploiting their labor in factories. Further, even after the Industrial Revolution began, the number of persons who could rise from poverty to wealth was small: the vast majority took it for granted that they should not be much richer nor poorer than their fathers. In consequence, no European associates wealth with personal merit or poverty with personal failure. To a European, money means power, the freedom to do as he likes, which also means that, consciously or unconsciously, he says: “I want to have as much money as possible myself and others to have as little money as possible.” In the United States, wealth was also acquired by stealing, but the real exploited victim was not a human being but poor Mother Earth and her creatures who were ruthlessly plundered. It is true that the Indians were expropriated, but this was not, as it had always been in Europe, a matter of the conqueror seizing the wealth of the conquered, for the Indian had never realized the potential riches of his country. It is also true that, in the Southern states, men lived on the labor of slaves, but slave labor did not make them fortunes; what made slavery in the South all the more inexcusable was that, in addition to being morally wicked, it didn’t even pay off handsomely. Thanks to the natural resources of the country, every American, until quite recently, could reasonably look forward to making more money than his father, so that, if he made less, the fault must be his; he was either lazy or inefficient. What an American values, therefore, is not the possession of money as such, but his power to make it as a proof of his manhood; once he has proved himself by making it, it has served its function and can be lost or given away. In no society in history have rich men given away so large a part of their fortunes. A poor American feels guilty at being poor, but less guilty than an American rentier who has inherited wealth but is doing nothing to increase it; what can the latter do but take to drink and psychoanalysis? In the Fifth Circle on the Mount of Purgatory, I do not think that many Americans will be found among the Avaricious; but I suspect that the Prodigals may be almost an American colony. The great vice of Americans is not materialism but a lack of respect for matter. �Содержание Susan Sontag. Beauty For the Greeks, beauty was a virtue: a kind of excellence. Persons then were assumed to be what we now have to call – lamely, enviously, – WHOLE persons. If it did occur to the Greeks to distinguish between a person’s “inside” and “outside”, they still expected that inner beauty would be matched by beauty of the other kind. The well-born young Americans who gathered around Socrates found it quite paradoxical that their hero was so intelligent, so brave, so honourable, so seductive – and so ugly. One of Socrates’ main pedagogical acts was to be ugly – and teach those innocent, no doubt splendid-looking disciples of his how full of paradoxes life really was. They may have resisted Socrates’ lessons. We do not. Several thousand years later, we are more wary of the enchantments of beauty. We not only split off with the greatest facility – the “inside” (character, intellect) from the “outside” (looks); but we are actually surprised when someone who is beautiful is also intelligent, talented, good. It was principally the influence of Christianity that deprived beauty of the central place it had in classical ideas of human excellence. By limiting excellence (“virtus” in Latin) to moral virtues only, Christianity set beauty adrift – as an alienated, arbitrary, superficial enchantment. And beauty has continued to lose prestige. For close to two centuries it has become a convention to attribute beauty to only one of the two sexes: the sex, which, however Fair, is always Second. Associating beauty with women has put beauty even further on the defensive, morally. A beautiful woman, we say in English. But a handsome man. “Handsome” is the masculine equivalent of – and refusal of – a compliment which has accumulated certain demeaning overtone, by being reserved for women only. That one can call a man “beautiful” in French and in Italian suggests that Catholic countries – unlike those countries shaped by the Protestant version of Christianity – still retain some vestiges of the pagan admiration for beauty. But the difference, if one exists, is of degree only. In every modern country that is Christian or post-Christian, women ARE the beautiful sex – to the detriment of the notion of beauty as well as of women. To be called beautiful is thought to name something essential to women’s character and concerns. (In contrast to men whose essence is to be strong, or effective, or competent.) It does not take someone in the throes of advanced feminist awareness to perceive that the way women are taught to be involved with beauty encourages narcissism, reinforces dependence and immaturity. Everybody (women and men) knows that. For it is “everybody”, a whole society, that has identified being feminine with caring about how one LOOKS. (In contrast to being masculine-which is identified with caring about what one IS and DOES and only secondarily, if at all, about how one looks). Given these stereotypes, it is no wonder that beauty enjoys, at best, a rather mixed reputation. It is not, of course, the desire to be beautiful that is wrong but the obligation to be – or to try. What is accepted by most women as a flattering idealisation of their sex is a way of making women feel inferior to what they actually are- or normally grow to be. For the ideal of beauty is �Содержание administered as a form of self-oppression. Women are taught to see their bodies in parts, and to evaluate each part separately. Breasts, feet, hips, waistline, neck, eyes, nose, complexion, hair, and so on-each in turn is submitted to an anxious, fretful, often despairing scrutiny. Even if some pass muster, some will always be found wanting. Nothing less than perfection will do. In men, good looks is a whole, something taken in at a glance. It does not need to be confirmed by giving measurements of different regions of the body, nobody encourages a man to dissect his appearance, feature by feature. As for perfection, that is considered trivial – almost unmanly. Indeed, in the ideally good-looking man a small imperfection or blemish is considered positively desirable. According to one movie critic (a woman) who is a declared Robert Redford fan, it is having that cluster of skin-coloured moles on the cheek that saves Redford from being merely a “pretty face”. Think of the depreciation of women – as well as of beauty – that is implied in that judgement. “The privileges of beauty are immense,” said Cocteau. To be sure, beauty is a form of power. And deservedly so. What is lamentable is that it is the only form of power that most women are encouraged to seek. This power is always conceived in relation to men; it is not the power to do but the power to attract. It is a power that negates itself. For this power is not one that can be chosen freely – at least, not by moment – or renounced without social censure. To preen, for a woman, can never be just a pleasure. It is also a duty. It is her work. If a woman does real work – and even if she has clambered up to a leading position in politics, law, medicine, business, or whatever-she is always under pressure to confess that she still works as being attractive. But in so far as she is keeping up as one of the Fair Sex, she brings under suspicion her very capacity to be objective, professional, authoritative, thoughtful. Damned if they do-women are. And damned if they don’t. One could hardly ask for more important evidence of the dangers of considering persons as split between what is “inside” and what is “outside” than that interminable half-comic halftragic tale, the oppression of women. How easy it is to start off by defining women as caretakers of their surfaces, and then to disparage them (or find them adorable) for being “superficial”. It is a crude trap, and it has worked for too long. But to get out of the trap requires that women get some critical distance from that excellence and privilege which is beauty, enough distance to see how much beauty itself has been abridged in order to prop up the mythology of the “feminine”. There should be a way of saving beauty FROM women – and FOR men. �Содержание PART II. THE LANGUAGE OF PUBLIC SPEAKING The Main Features of Publicistic Style Analysing Speeches Analysing Political Speeches Donald Trump. The Crossroads In Our History Theodore Roosevelt. The Man with the Muck-rake Speeches for Self-Guided Analysis Margaret Thatcher. Iron Lady Speech Donald Trump. Inaugural Address Sheryl Sandberg. Address to the Class of 2012 at HBS �Содержание The Main Features of Publicistic Style Publicistic style is used in public speeches and printed public works which discuss important social or political events and problems of cultural or moral character. It falls into three varieties. Unlike other literary styles, the publicistic style has a spoken variety – the oratorical sub-style. The development of radio and television has brought into being a new spoken variety of the radio and television commentary. The other two sub-styles are essay (moral, philosophical, literary) and journalistic articles (political, social, economic) in newspapers, journals and magazines. Publicistic style is characterized by brevity of expression. In some varieties of this style it becomes a leading feature. In essays brevity sometimes becomes epigrammatic. Syntactical features of the publicistic style include: • coherent and logical syntactical structure; • careful paragraphing; • simple rather than complex sentences; • expanded system of connectives; • brevity of expression; • abundant use of modifiers (adjectives, adverbs). Lexical features: • emphasis on accessibility and easy understanding; • paraphrases rather than special terms, established and generally understood terms; • words with emotive and evaluative connotations; • euphemisms; • traditional metaphors and similes; • allusions and quotations; • newspaper clichés; • numerals, abbreviations, symbols. The main aim of the publicist style is to influence public opinion. The writer or speaker tries to convince the reader or the listener that their point of view is the right one. They make the reader accept the point of view expressed in the speech, or article not merely by logical argumentation, but by emotional appeal as well. The combination of logical argumentation and emotional appeal makes the publicistic style similar to the style of scientific prose or official documents, on the one hand, and that of emotive prose, on the other. The features which the publicistic style shares with scientific prose are coherent and logical syntactic structures, an expanded system of connectives and careful paragraphing. Its emotional appeal is generally achieved by the use of connotative vocabulary, imagery and stylistic devices as in emotive prose. Sometimes the publicistic style has elements of colloquial style because the authors do not �Содержание intend to make their speech impersonal (as in scientific or official style), but, on the contrary, try to approximate the text to lively communication. The way the speakers attempt to share a sense of themselves with their audience reveals how they want to be viewed. Humorous anecdotes, for instance, are often used by politicians to alter the public perception of them. They can reduce the distance between the speaker and their audience, in order to make them appear less stiff and more human. Essays and speeches have greater individuality than newspaper and magazine articles where it is usually limited by the requirements of the style. Analysing Speeches Analysing Political Speeches �Содержание Analysing Speeches The oratorical style is a subdivision of the publicistic style. This style is evident in addresses on various occasions from public speeches on political and social problems of the day, to speeches at weddings and jubilees. Political speeches aim at convincing the listener by arguments, to persuade them on an emotional level or even manipulate them. Often there is a mixture if these. Direct contact with the listeners permits the combination of the syntactical, lexical and phonetic peculiarities of both the written and spoken varieties of language. Analysing speeches the reader, unlike the listener, has all the benefit of the text and a more comprehensive impression of the strategies and techniques employed in the speech. To arrange them into a well–structured presentation one can make use of a few suggestions offered here. Introduction Approaching a speech the reader should pay attention to the elements of the rhetorical pentangle. Answering the following questions the reader will introduce the context of the speech and outline the main directions of its analysis. • What do you know/what can you find out about the writer/speaker as a person? • What sort of people constitutes the audience? • On what occasion is the speech made? Under what circumstances? • What is the speech about? What is the topic? • What seems to be the speaker’s purpose? • What language means does the speaker use? • The study of the form of a text will make up the biggest part of any stylistic analysis. That is why analyzing the speech one should focus on the linguistic elements that foreground the meaning contained in it. �Содержание Here are some areas to look at. Structure How is the speech structured? This question points toward the strategies used in the main parts of a speech: introduction – body – conclusion. A political speech, for example, generally starts with an introduction by which the speaker intends to attract the audience’s attention making clear the purpose of the speech, mentioning the topic and emphasizing its importance. The speaker may begin with question or a little story. In the body of the speech the speaker tries to maintain the audience’s attention developing main points step by step, backing up main ideas with facts and background information, suggesting what should be done to improve the situation or presenting solutions to the problem. At the end the speaker makes a conclusion by appealing again to the audience’s intellect and/or emotions, for example, summing up the main arguments in one or two sentences, or asking the audience to support his point of view. Analysing the structure of a speech the reader can comment on the effectiveness of the speaker’s argumentation. Consider the following questions: • Is there a governing idea running through the speech? • How does the speaker build his argumentation? • What grounds are given? • Is the argumentation solid? The speaker’s strategies in making their arguments more persuasive can include some of these: • the use of key symbols, slogans, stereotypes; • the use of opposition; • abstractions and generalizations vs. the presentation of specific issues or events; • references and illustrations, etc. Another element relating to the structure is coherence. • Do the various parts of the speech relate logically? • How are the individual parts tied together? • What connecting words are used? Language Means No matter how logically some orators may reason and may order the ideas, without a clever handling of the language in which they communicate they cannot exert the intended influence on their listeners. In the speeches intended to instill in the listener conformity to the ideas proposed by the speaker all rhetorical techniques go hand in hand with stylistic devices. Further analysis of the persuasive strategies and techniques employed in the speech will require a closer look at the text, with special attention to the language means. Some of them are: • key words and phrases; • stylistically coloured words; �Содержание • the use of the superlative degree of adjectives; • clusters of words (words related to each other in meaning): synonyms, thematic groups of words, words with common semantic component; • antonyms; • lexical expressive means (metaphors, similes, epithets, allusions, periphrases, irony, etc.); • syntactical expressive means (repetition, parallel constructions, antithesis, etc.); • phonetic expressive means (alliteration, assonance, onomatopoeia, rhyme, rhythm); • the use of personal pronouns (e.g. “I”, “us”, “we”, “you”, “they” etc.). Evaluation At the end the reader is asked to give their commentary on a personal level. Thus, the reader needs to have some social, cultural and political background knowledge in order to be able to evaluate the speech properly. • Is the speech successful? • Is it a good speech? • Does it communicate its intended message? • Does it hit its target audience? • Does it fit the occasion? • Is it convincing? �Содержание Analysing Political Speeches The language of politics is very persuasive and powerful. It aims to inspire and challenge people to create a better world. Such outstanding politicians as Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill raised their people to defeat Fascism during the 2-nd World War. In his inaugural address John F. Kennedy energised the nation with his famous words “ask not what your country can do for you – ask what you can do for your country”. Nelson Mandela became a symbol of global peace-making inspiring the civil rights activists worldwide. However, language can be deliberately used by politicians and their speechwriters for many different purposes. Political rhetoric can mislead, deceive and manipulate. We are fed a daily diet of political language as presidential campaigns seem to get started earlier each term. Speeches of national leaders saturate the media becoming more and more elaborate in the techniques used to influence public opinion. Classifying the means, or tricks, used in propaganda Donna Woolfolk Cross enumerates the following devices. • Name-calling, or labeling people or ideas with words of bad connotation, can be used against policies, practices, beliefs and ideals, as well as against individuals, groups, races, nations. Name-calling is at work when we hear a candidate for office described as a “foolish idealist” or a “two-faced liar” or when an incumbent’s policies are denounced as “reckless”, “reactionary”, or just plain “stupid.” • Glittering generalities are really name-calling in reverse. Name-calling uses words with bad connotations; glittering generalities are “virtue words”. While name-calling tries to get us to reject and condemn someone or something without examining the evidence, glittering generalities try to get us to accept and agree without examining the evidence. People believe in “virtue words” which they feel deeply about: “justice”, “motherhood”, “our Constitutional rights”. • “Plain folks” is the device by which a speaker tries to win our confidence and support by appearing to be a person like everyone else – “just one of the plain folks”. • Argumentum ad populum means “argument to the people” or “telling the people what they want to hear”. People like to hear nice things about themselves. So it stands to reason that the public will respond warmly to a person who tells they are “hard-working taxpayers” or “the most generous, free-spirited nation in the world”. • Argumentum ad hominem means “argument to the man” and that’s exactly what it is. When a propagandist uses argumentum ad hominem, he wants to distract people’s attention from the issue under consideration with personal attacks on the involved. • Guilt (or glory) by association. In glory by association, the propagandist tries to transfer the positive feelings of something we love and respect to the group or idea he wants us to accept. “This bill for a new dam is in the best tradition of this country, the land of Lincoln, Jefferson, and Washington,” is glory by association at work. Lincoln, Jefferson, and Washington were great leaders that most of us revere and respect, but they have no logical connection to the proposal under consideration – the bill to build a new dam. �Содержание • Bandwagon urges people to support an action or an opinion because it is popular – because “everyone else is doing it”. • Faulty cause and effect is the device that sets up a cause-and-effect relationship that may not be true. People are promised that if they swallow X product the headache will go away, if they elect Y official unemployment will go down. • False Analogy. An analogy is a comparison between two ideas, events or things. But comparisons can be fairly made only when the things being compared are alike in significant ways. When they are not, false analogy is the result. • Begging the question occurs when, in discussing a questionable or debatable point, a person assumes as already established the very point that he is trying to prove. For example, “No thinking citizen could approve such a completely unacceptable policy as this one”. • The two-extremes fallacy (false dilemma) is at work, for example, in the slogan, “America: Love it or leave it”. One should always ask, “Are those really the only two options I can choose from? Are there other alternatives not mentioned that deserve consideration?” • Card stacking is a device of propaganda which selects only the facts that support the propagandist’s point of view, and ignores all the others. • Testimonial device consists in having some loved or respected person give a statement of support for a given idea. When confronting rhetoric, it is important to be able to listen to the nuances, to see what is being spoken, and what is being unspoken. The name for the language that conceals ideas or prevents thinking was invented by George Orwell. In his novel 1984 he introduced the notion of doublespeak. William Lutz, an American linguist, in his famous essay The World of Doublespeak defines it as “language that pretends to communicate but really doesn’t”, and “language that makes the bad seem good, the negative appear positive, the unpleasant appear attractive or at least tolerable”. Among other devices doublespeak is most evident in euphemism. An inoffensive or positive word or phrase is often designed to avoid a harsh, unpleasant, or distasteful reality. Thus a tax increase turns into “revenue enhancement”. Airplanes don’t crash, they just have “uncontrolled contact with the ground”. Specific sphere of implementing euphemism is political correctness. This term is used to describe language, ideas, policies, or behavior seen as seeking to avoid offence or disadvantage towards racial, cultural, or other identity groups. Some people believe that political correctness is a serious movement aiming to change the nature of Western society. Others think that it is subjective, and corresponds to the sponsored view of the government, minority, or a special interest group. The impact of the feminist movement spread into the sphere of language starting with the bias against English vocabulary and grammar that reflect a male-oriented perspective. In vocabulary, for example, we observe the replacement of “male” words with a generic meaning by neutral words (chairman – chairperson, stewardess– flight attendant). In grammar the lack of a sex-neutral third-person singular pronoun required by sex-neutral nouns (speaker, student, �Содержание teacher) and indefinite pronouns (somebody, anybody) resulted in the use of the third-person plural pronouns (they, their, them) or the use of the third-person singular pronouns of both genders (he or she, his or her, him or her). To refer to a singular person with a plural pronoun is now quite widely accepted. Which pronoun to choose is up to the speaker; they are all grammatically correct, but they are not all equally politically correct. Politicians are known to have been the best manipulators of masses of people. In order to persuade their audience the speakers have to seduce their audiences with their words. Many persuasive and manipulative strategies are linguistically realised in political discourse. However, whether a given instance of the use of language is justifiably treated as strategic is a matter of social and political judgment. To be able to interpret the speaker’s intention one should not only master the language but be aware of current affairs. Everything from becoming an informed voter to donating to a cause is influenced by one’s consciousness of the world issues. TASK. On October 13th 2016, Presidential Candidate Donald Trump delivered a stunning speech The Crossroads In Our History. Part of this speech is given below. Focus on the rhetorical techniques and stylistic devices visible in Donald Trump’s speech to point out their manipulative undertones. �Содержание Donald Trump from The Crossroads In Our History …Our movement is about replacing a failed and corrupt political establishment with a new government controlled by you, the American People. There is nothing the political establishment will not do, and no lie they will not tell, to hold on to their prestige and power at your expense. The Washington establishment, and the financial and media corporations that fund it, exists for only one reason: to protect and enrich itself. The establishment has trillions of dollars at stake in this election. As an example, just one single trade deal they’d like to pass, involves trillions of dollars controlled by many countries, corporations and lobbyists. For those who control the levers of power in Washington, and for the global special interests they partner with, our campaign represents an existential threat. This is not simply another 4-year election. This is a crossroads in the history of our civilization that will determine whether or not We The People reclaim control over our government. The political establishment that is trying everything to stop us, is the same group responsible for our disastrous trade deals, massive illegal immigration, and economic and foreign policies that have bled this country dry. The political establishment has brought about the destruction of our factories and our jobs, as they flee to Mexico, China and other countries throughout the world. Our just-announced jobs numbers are anemic, and our gross domestic product, or GDP, is barely above one percent. Workers in the United States, were making less than they were almost 20 years ago – and yet they are working harder. It’s a global power structure that is responsible for the economic decisions that have robbed our working class, stripped our country of its wealth, and put that money into the pockets of a handful of large corporations and political entities. Just look at what this corrupt establishment has done to our cities like Detroit and Flint, Michigan – and rural towns in Pennsylvania, Ohio, North Carolina and across our country. They have stripped these towns bare, and raided the wealth for themselves and taken away their jobs. The Clinton Machine is at the center of this power structure. We’ve seen this firsthand in the WikiLeaks documents in which Hillary Clinton meets in secret with international banks to plot the destruction of U.S. sovereignty in order to enrich these global financial powers. And, likewise, the emails show that the Clinton Machine is so closely and irrevocably tied to media organizations that she is given the questions and answers in advance of her debates. Clinton is also given approval and veto power over quotes written about her in the New York Times. And the emails show the reporters collaborate and conspire directly with the Clinton Campaign on helping her win the election. �Содержание With their control over our government at stake, with trillions of dollars on the line, the Clinton Machine is determined to achieve the destruction of our campaign, which has now become a movement the likes of which our country has never seen before – and we won’t let them do that. The most powerful weapon deployed by the Clintons is the corporate media. Let’s be clear on one thing: the corporate media in our country is no longer involved in journalism. They are a political special interest, no different than any lobbyist or other financial entity with an agenda. And their agenda is to elect the Clintons at any cost, at any price, no matter how many lives they destroy. For them, it is a war – and for them, nothing is out of bounds. This is a struggle for the survival of our nation. This election will determine whether we are a free nation, or whether we have only the illusion of Democracy but are in fact controlled by a small handful of global special interests rigging the system. This is not just conspiracy but reality, and you and I know it. The establishment and their media enablers wield control over this nation through means that are well known. Anyone who challenges their control is deemed a sexist, a racist, a xenophobe and morally deformed. They will attack you, they will slander you, they will seek to destroy your career and reputation. And they will lie, lie and lie even more. The Clintons are criminals. This is well-documented, and the establishment that protects them has engaged in a massive cover-up of widespread criminal activity at the State Department and Clinton Foundation in order to keep the Clintons in power. Never in history have we seen such a cover-up as this, one that includes the destruction of 33,000 emails, 13 phones, laptops, missing boxes of evidence, and on and on. People who are capable of such crimes against our nation are capable of anything. …But I take all of these slings and arrows for you. I take them for our movement, so that we can have our country back. Our great civilization, here in America and across the civilized world, has come upon a moment of reckoning. We’ve seen it in the United Kingdom, where they voted to liberate themselves from global government and global trade deals and global immigration deals that have destroyed their sovereignty. But the central base of world political power is here in America, and it is our corrupt political establishment that is the greatest power behind the efforts at radical globalization and the disenfranchisement of working people. Their financial resources are unlimited. Their political resources are unlimited. Their media resources are unlimited. And, most importantly, the depths of their immorality is unlimited. �Содержание Our political establishment has no soul. I knew these false attacks would come. I knew this day would arrive. And I knew the American people would rise above it and vote for the future they deserve. The only thing that can stop the Corrupt Clinton Machine is you. The only force strong enough to save this country is you. The only people brave enough to vote out this corrupt establishment is you, the American People. They control the Department of Justice, and they even clandestinely meet with the Attorney General of the United States – in the back of her airplane, while on the runway – for 39 minutes – to most likely discuss her reappointment in a Clinton Administration just prior to the Attorney General making a decision over whether or not to prosecute Hillary Clinton. Likewise, they have corrupted the Director of the FBI to the point at which stories are already saying the great men and women who work for the FBI are embarrassed and ashamed to what he’s done to one of our great institutions. Hillary Clinton is guilty of all of the things that Director Comey stated at his press conference and Congressional hearings, and far more – and yet he let her off the hook, while others lives are being destroyed for far less. This is a conspiracy against you, the American people. This is our moment of reckoning as a society and as a civilization. I didn’t need to do this. I built a great company, and I had a wonderful life. I could have enjoyed the benefits of years of successful business for myself and my family, instead of going through this absolute horror show of lies, deceptions and malicious attacks. I’m doing it because this country has given me so much, and I feel strongly it was my turn to give back. Some people warned me this campaign would be a journey to hell. But they are wrong, it will be a journey to heaven because we will help so many people. In my former life, I was an insider as much as anybody else – and I know what’s like to be an insider. Now I am being punished for leaving their special club and revealing to you their great scam. Because I used to be part of the club, I’m the only one who can fix it. I’m doing this for the people, and this movement is just right – and we will take back this country for you and Make America Great Again. The corrupt establishment knows that we are an existential threat to their criminal enterprise. They know, that if we win, their power is gone and returned to you. The clouds hanging over our government can be lifted, and replaced with a bright future – but it all depends on whether we let the New York Times decide our future, or whether we let the American people decide our future. If this Clinton Campaign of Destruction is allowed to work, then no other highly successful person – which is what our country needs – will ever again run for this office. I will not lie to you. These false attacks hurt. To be lied about, to be slandered, to be smeared so publicly and before your family, is painful. �Содержание What the Clinton Machine is doing to me, and my family, is egregious beyond words. It is reprehensible beyond description. But I also know, it’s not about me – it’s about all of you. It’s about all of us, together, as a country. It’s about the Veterans who need medical care, the mothers who’ve lost children to terrorism and crime, it’s about the inner cities and the border towns who desperately need our help, it’s about the millions of jobless Americans. This election is about the people being crushed by Obamacare, and it’s about defeating ISIS and appointing Supreme Court Justices who will defend our Constitution. This election is also about the African-American and Hispanic communities whose communities have been plunged into crime, poverty and failing schools by the policies of Hillary Clinton. They’ve robbed these citizens of their future, and I will give them their hope, jobs and opportunities back. I will deliver. This election is about every man, woman and child in our country who deserves to live in safety, prosperity and peace. We will rise above the lies, the smears, and the ludicrous slanders from ludicrous reporters. We will vote for the country we want. We will vote for the future we want. We will vote for the politics we want. We will vote to put this corrupt government cartel out of business. We will remove from our politics the special interests who have betrayed our workers, our borders, our freedoms, and our sovereign rights as a nation. We will end the politics of profit, we will end the rule of special interests, we will put a stop to the raiding of our country – and the disenfranchisement of our people. Our Independence Day is at hand, and it arrives, finally, on November 8th. Join me in taking back our country, and creating a bright and glorious new dawn for our people. �Содержание Theodore Roosevelt (1858–1919) In September 1901, after the assassination of William McKinley, Theodore Roosevelt, the young and robust Republican politician, unexpectedly became the 26th president of the United States. He brought a new energy to the White House, and won a second term on his own merits in 1904. He was the first president to win reelection after gaining the White House due to the death of his predecessor. Early in his presidency, Theodore Roosevelt sparked a scandal when he invited the African-American educator Booker T. Washington to dine with him and his family; he was the first president ever to entertain a black man in the White House. In domestic policy, Roosevelt was a radical within the Republican Party. He was a champion of reform. Roosevelt’s “Square Deal” proclaimed the battle against large industrial trusts which threatened to restrain trade. In 1902, his government brought a successful suit under the previously ineffective Sherman Antitrust Act against the Northern Securities Company, a railroad group formed by James J. Hill, E.H. Harriman and J.P. Morgan. Roosevelt also halted a prolonged coal strike in Pennsylvania negotiating a payment increase for the miners. Besides, he set aside almost 200 million acres – almost five times as much land as all his predecessors combined – for national forests, reserves and wildlife refuges. In his foreign policy Roosevelt sought to bring the United States out of its isolation and fulfill its responsibility as a world power. Theodor Roosevelt won a Nobel Peace Prize for his negotiations to end the Russo-Japanese War. In 1903, he helped Panama separate from Colombia in order to facilitate the beginning of the construction of the Panama Canal, which he later claimed as his greatest accomplishment as president. To prepare the United States for its expanded role on the world stage, Roosevelt sought to build up the country’s defenses, and by the end of his presidency he had transformed the U.S. Navy into a major international force at sea. Theodor Roosevelt is said to have ushered in a “rhetorical presidency”. He was an extremely popular President and the first to use the media to appeal directly to the people. He took advantage of his popularity to expand the power of the government, supporting policies that he believed would benefit the nation. His powerful speeches were made headlines and called for change. Journalists exemplified progressive ideals as they investigated corruption within business and government. Muckrakers attacked the robber barons and great industries for the way they abused workers and public trust. The term, which referred to the “man with a muck rake” in John Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s �Содержание Progress, was first used by Theodor Roosevelt in his famous speech “Man With the Muckrake”. This speech epitomizes the ideals of the Progressive Era. from The Man with the Muck-rake delivered on the 14th of April 1906 Over a century ago Washington laid the corner stone of the Capitol in what was then little more than a tract of wooded wilderness here beside the Potomac. We now find it necessary to provide by great additional buildings for the business of the government. This growth in the need for the housing of the government is but a proof and example of the way in which the nation has grown and the sphere of action of the national government has grown. We now administer the affairs of a nation in which the extraordinary growth of population has been outstripped by the growth of wealth in complex interests. The material problems that face us today are not such as they were in Washington’s time, but the underlying facts of human nature are the same now as they were then. Under altered external form we war with the same tendencies toward evil that were evident in Washington’s time, and are helped by the same tendencies for good. It is about some of these that I wish to say a word today. In Bunyan’s “Pilgrim’s Progress” you may recall the description of the Man with the Muck Rake, the man who could look no way but downward, with the muck rake in his hand; who was offered a celestial crown for his muck rake, but who would neither look up nor regard the crown he was offered, but continued to rake to himself the filth of the floor. In “Pilgrim’s Progress” the Man with the Muck Rake is set forth as the example of him whose vision is fixed on carnal instead of spiritual things. Yet he also typifies the man who in this life consistently refuses to see aught that is lofty, and fixes his eyes with solemn intentness only on that which is vile and debasing. Now, it is very necessary that we should not flinch from seeing what is vile and debasing. There is filth on the floor, and it must be scraped up with the muck rake; and there are times and places where this service is the most needed of all the services that can be performed. But the man who never does anything else, who never thinks or speaks or writes, save of his feats with the muck rake, speedily becomes, not a help but one of the most potent forces for evil. There are in the body politic, economic and social, many and grave evils, and there is urgent necessity for the sternest war upon them. There should be relentless exposure of and attack upon every evil man, whether politician or business man, every evil practice, whether in politics, business, or social life. I hail as a benefactor every writer or speaker, every man who, on the platform or in a book, magazine, or newspaper, with merciless severity makes such attack, provided always that he in his turn remembers that the attack is of use only if it is absolutely truthful. …One of the chief counts against those who make indiscriminate assault upon men in business or men in public life is that they invite a reaction which is sure to tell powerfully in favor of the unscrupulous scoundrel who really ought to be attacked, who ought to be exposed, who ought, if possible, to be put in the penitentiary. If Aristides is praised overmuch as just, people get tired of hearing it; and over-censure of the unjust finally and from similar reasons results in their favor. �Содержание Any excess is almost sure to invite a reaction; and, unfortunately, the reactions instead of taking the form of punishment of those guilty of the excess, is apt to take the form either of punishment of the unoffending or of giving immunity, and even strength, to offenders. The effort to make financial or political profit out of the destruction of character can only result in public calamity. Gross and reckless assaults on character, whether on the stump or in newspaper, magazine, or book, create a morbid and vicious public sentiment, and at the same time act as a profound deterrent to able men of normal sensitiveness and tend to prevent them from entering the public service at any price. …At the risk of repetition let me say again that my plea is not for immunity to, but for the most unsparing exposure of, the politician who betrays his trust, of the big business man who makes or spends his fortune in illegitimate or corrupt ways. There should be a resolute effort to hunt every such man out of the position he has disgraced. Expose the crime, and hunt down the criminal; but remember that even in the case of crime, if it is attacked in sensational, lurid, and untruthful fashion, the attack may do more damage to the public mind than the crime itself. It is because I feel that there should be no rest in the endless war against the forces of evil that I ask the war be conducted with sanity as well as with resolution. The men with the muck rakes are often indispensable to the well being of society; but only if they know when to stop raking the muck, and to look upward to the celestial crown above them, to the crown of worthy endeavor. There are beautiful things above and round about them; and if they gradually grow to feel that the whole world is nothing but muck, their power of usefulness is gone. If the whole picture is painted black there remains no hue whereby to single out the rascals for distinction from their fellows. Such painting finally induces a kind of moral color blindness; and people affected by it come to the conclusion that no man is really black, and no man really white, but they are all gray. …The fool who has not sense to discriminate between what is good and what is bad is well nigh as dangerous as the man who does discriminate and yet chooses the bad. There is nothing more distressing to every good patriot, to every good American, than the hard, scoffing spirit which treats the allegation of dishonesty in a public man as a cause for laughter. Such laughter is worse than the crackling of thorns under a pot, for it denotes not merely the vacant mind, but the heart in which high emotions have been choked before they could grow to fruition. There is any amount of good in the world, and there never was a time when loftier and more disinterested work for the betterment of mankind was being done than now. The forces that tend for evil are great and terrible, but the forces of truth and love and courage and honesty and generosity and sympathy are also stronger than ever before. It is a foolish and timid, no less than a wicked thing, to blink the fact that the forces of evil are strong, but it is even worse to fail to take into account the strength of the forces that tell for good. Hysterical sensationalism is the poorest weapon wherewith to fight for lasting righteousness. The men who with stern sobriety and truth assail the many evils of our time, whether in the public press, or in magazines, or in books, are the leaders and allies of all engaged in the work for social and political betterment. But if they give good reason for distrust of what they say, if they chill the ardor of those who demand truth as a primary virtue, they thereby betray the good cause and play into the hands of the very men against whom they are nominally at war. �Содержание …At this moment we are passing through a period of great unrest – social, political, and industrial unrest. It is of the utmost importance for our future that this should prove to be not the unrest of mere rebelliousness against life, of mere dissatisfaction with the inevitable inequality of conditions, but the unrest of a resolute and eager ambition to secure the betterment of the individual and the nation. So far as this movement of agitation throughout the country takes the form of a fierce discontent with evil, of a determination to punish the authors of evil, whether in industry or politics, the feeling is to be heartily welcomed as a sign of healthy life. If, on the other hand, it turns into a mere crusade of appetite against appetite, of a contest between the brutal greed of the “have nots” and the brutal greed of the “haves,” then it has no significance for good, but only for evil. If it seeks to establish a line of cleavage, not along the line which divides good men from bad, but along that other line, running at right angles thereto, which divides those who are well off from those who are less well off, then it will be fraught with immeasurable harm to the body politic. …The first requisite in the public servants who are to deal in this shape with corporations, whether as legislators or as executives, is honesty. This honesty can be no respecter of persons. There can be no such thing as unilateral honesty. The danger is not really from corrupt corporations; it springs from the corruption itself, whether exercised for or against corporations. The eighth commandment reads, “Thou shalt not steal”. It does not read, “Thou shalt not steal from the rich man”. It does not read, “Thou shalt not steal from the poor man”. It reads simply and plainly, “Thou shalt not steal”. No good whatever will come from that warped and mock morality which denounces the misdeeds of men of wealth and forgets the misdeeds practiced at their expense; which denounces bribery, but blinds itself to blackmail; which foams with rage if a corporation secures favors by improper methods, and merely leers with hideous mirth if the corporation is itself wronged. The only public servant who can be trusted honestly to protect the rights of the public against the misdeeds of a corporation is that public man who will just as surely protect the corporation itself from wrongful aggression. If a public man is willing to yield to popular clamor and do wrong to the men of wealth or to rich corporations, it may be set down as certain that if the opportunity comes he will secretly and furtively do wrong to the public in the interest of a corporation. But in addition to honesty, we need sanity. No honesty will make a public man useful if that man is timid or foolish, if he is a hot-headed zealot or an impracticable visionary. As we strive for reform we find that it is not at all merely the case of a long uphill pull. On the contrary, there is almost as much of breeching work as of collar work. To depend only on traces means that there will soon be a runaway and an upset. The men of wealth who today are trying to prevent the regulation and control of their business in the interest of the public by the proper government authorities will not succeed, in my judgment, in checking the progress of the movement. But if they did succeed they would find �Содержание that they had sown the wind and would surely reap the whirlwind, for they would ultimately provoke the violent excesses which accompany a reform coming by convulsion instead of by steady and natural growth. On the other hand, the wild preachers of unrest and discontent, the wild agitators against the entire existing order, the men who act crookedly, whether because of sinister design or from mere puzzle headedness, the men who preach destruction without proposing any substitute for what they intend to destroy, or who propose a substitute which would be far worse than the existing evils-all these men are the most dangerous opponents of real reform. If they get their way they will lead the people into a deeper pit than any into which they could fall under the present system. If they fail to get their way they will still do incalculable harm by provoking the kind of reaction which in its revolt against the senseless evil of their teaching would enthrone more securely than ever the evils which their misguided followers believe they are attacking. More important than aught else is the development of the broadest sympathy of man for man. The welfare of the wage worker, the welfare of the tiller of the soil, upon these depend the welfare of the entire country; their good is not to be sought in pulling down others; but their good must be the prime object of all our statesmanship. Materially we must strive to secure a broader economic opportunity for all men, so that each shall have a better chance to show the stuff of which he is made. Spiritually and ethically we must strive to bring about clean living and right thinking. We appreciate that the things of the body are important; but we appreciate also that the things of the soul are immeasurably more important. The foundation stone of national life is, and ever must be, the high individual character of the average citizen. Questions and Tasks for the Analysis of the Text 1. What is Theodore Roosevelt’s political reputation? What do you know about American Progressive Era? 2. The speech was delivered at the laying of the foundation of the office building of the House of Representatives. How does Roosevelt use this event at the beginning of his speech to argue the expansion of the government influence? 3. Opening the speech, Roosevelt suggests an image of George Washington. What aspect of Americanism does this image call for? Does it give more authenticity to Roosevelt’s message? 4. What is the central topic of Roosevelt’s speech? How does he formulate it? What does the phrase “the underlying facts of human nature” stand for? 5. Analyse the allusion to John Bunyan’s book. How does the speaker interpret the episode from Pilgrim’s Progress? What feature is accentuated in the image of the man with the muck rake? What is allegorically represented by “the filth of the floor” and “a celestial crown”? Comment on the choice of words. What is the role of repetition in the speaker’s argumentation? 6. What is the danger in being fixed on the “filth”? Can muckraking help or harm society? Is it possible to reach the balance between the two sides of sensational writing: exposure of �Содержание wrongdoing and excessive dramatization? What illustrations does the speaker give to criticise the negative influence of any excess in journalism? What language means foreground the enthusiastic tone and emotionality of the text? 7. Theodore Roosevelt has been labeled a “trust-buster”. Do you see evidence of trustbusting in this speech? What can you conclude about his perspective of big business? Analyse the imagery employed to convey the necessity of radical measures against corruption. Pay attention to the use of modal verbs and superlative adjectives. 8. How does the speaker develop the image of the man with the muck rake? What is the purpose of referring to it again? 9. Analyse the concept of “moral color blindness”. What can be worse than that according to the speaker’s words? 10. How can one justify the gradual transition from the specific issue of sensational journalism to the general remarks concerning American patriotism, and then the goodness of mankind in the text? What language means partake in the lofty rhetoric of the passage? 11. Does the speaker defend the poor or the rich in his attempt to promote social and political betterment? How does he manage to reconcile the “have not” and “haves”, “those who are well off” and “those who are less well off”? Where does the ambiguity of his arguments lie? 12. What is Roosevelt’s definition of a good public servant? What are his best qualities? 13. How does the speaker project his views on sensational journalism upon the reform policy of the government? 14. Analyse the last paragraphs of Roosevelt’s speech. What ideas contained in them tie the whole text together? What is the speaker’s main message? Is it stated directly or implied? 15. Analyse the language of the speech. What language means and stylistic devices used in the text are typically employed in the publicistic style? 16. Theodore Roosevelt’s speech is most remembered today for the coinage of the term “muckraker”, brilliantly used by the speaker to create a compelling symbol for his message. What are the metaphoric connotations associated with the term “muck-rake?” Does this metaphor still apply to modern-day journalism? Are there any updated metaphors that apply better to today’s investigative reporting? 17. Prepare the final analysis of the speech. Speeches for Self-Guided Analysis Margaret Thatcher. Iron Lady Speech Donald Trump. Inaugural Address Sheryl Sandberg. Address to the Class of 2012 at HBS �Содержание Speeches for Self-Guided Analysis Margaret Thatcher. Iron Lady Speech Donald Trump. Inaugural Address Sheryl Sandberg. Address to the Class of 2012 at HBS �Содержание Margaret Thatcher. Iron Lady Speech I stand before you tonight in my Red Star chiffon evening gown, my face softly made up and my fair hair gently waved, the Iron Lady of the Western world. A cold war warrior, an amazon philistine, even a Peking plotter. Well, am I any of these things? Well yes, if that’s how they… Yes I am an iron lady, after all it wasn’t a bad thing to be an iron duke, yes if that’s how they wish to interpret my defence of values and freedoms fundamental to our way of life. And by they, I mean that somewhat strange alliance between the comrades of the Russian Defence Ministry – and our Defence Minister. They’re welcome to call me what they like if they believe that we should ignore the build-up of Russian military strength, and that we should not disturb their dreams of detente by worrying over the communist presence in Angola. But I happen to believe that what is at stake is important and is crucial to our future both in this country and in the world as a whole. We’re waging a battle on many fronts. We must not forget the guns and missiles aimed at us – but equally we must not let them blind us to the insidious war on words which is going on. It is not just a matter of hurling insults – where he who hurls loudest, hurls last – that is the final resort of the man who has already lost the argument, No, this is not such a war. The war is a true war of words, where meanings get lost in a mist of revolutionary fantasy; where accuracy is slipped quietly under the carpet; and where truth is twisted and bent to suit the latest propagandist line. That is what we are up against. And we have to fight it if only because we find it totally alien to our notions of freedom and truth. To illustrate what I mean, let us take that last sentence. It contains in it two words which, together, are among the most abused in the language of the struggle. Freedom and Fight. The Marxist has applied the description of freedom fighter to one who helps to bring about Marxism, a system which denies basic freedoms. In other words, that so-called freedom fighter is a man who helps to destroy freedom. Such is the corruption of the language they use. Necessary in their eyes because they know freedom is an appealing word. �Содержание The men of the Khmer Rouge whose first act on “liberating” – as they put it – Cambodia last year, was brutally to drive a large part of the population out of the capital Phnom Penh. Yet they were called “freedom fighters”. The men who tried to reverse the clear wishes of the people of Portugal – as expressed through the ballot box – in Marxist vocabulary they were “freedom fighters” too. This surely must have been one of the most blatant attempts at subversion we have seen in recent times. So do not let us be misled by their abuse of these words. But the fallacies of the present propaganda war come nearer to home than this. Let us look at another word being just a subtly corrupted in the litany of the left. The word is “Public”. We use it many times a day. It is with us all the time – because we are the public. All of us. Yet the word has become distorted. Take for example “Public Ownership”. In theory: We own the mines. We own the railways. We own the Post Office. But in practice we don’t really own anything. “Public ownership” should mean that you and I own something, that we have some say in how it is run, that it is accountable to us. But the fact is that the words “public ownership” have come to mean the very, very private world of decisions taken behind closed doors, and of accountability to no-one. How good for us all public ownership is presented as being. What a glimpse of socialist heaven it offers. The Socialists tell us that there are massive profits in a particular industry and they should not go to the shareholders – but that the public should reap the benefits. Benefits? What benefits? When you take into public ownership a profitable industry, the profits soon disappear. The goose that laid the golden eggs goes broody. State geese are not great layers. The steel industry was nationalised some years ago in the public interest – yet the only interest now left to the public is in witnessing the depressing spectacle of their money going down the drain at a rate of a million pounds a day. �Содержание Socialists then shift the ground for taking industries into “public ownership”. They then tell us that some industries cannot survive any longer unless they are taken into public ownership, allegedly to protect the public from the effects of their collapse. It all sounds so cosy, and so democratic. But is it true? No, of course it isn’t. The moment ownership passes into the name of the public is the moment the public ceases to have any ownership or accountability, and often the moment when it ceases to get what it wants. But it is invariably the moment when the public starts to pay. Pays to take the industry over. Pays the losses by higher taxes. Pays for inefficiencies in higher prices. Outside many pits in the country is a notice which says: “Managed on behalf of the people.” But will the people ever get to know who was responsible for the massive losses sustained since the mining industry was nationalised in 1947? If these are public industries, then surely the public has a right to know? The more so, because they are monopoly industries. In fact, publicly owned authorities are usually the most private imaginable. We need to revise our vocabulary and call something public only when ordinary members of the public are in actual control. The fact is that the British public more truly own firms like Marks & Spencer and others, than they do any of our nationalised industries. Some of them directly own shares in M&S. This gives them the right to ask questions about its management – its successes, its failures, and if they are not satisfied, they can sell their shares and invest their money elsewhere. Many more have an indirect share in it through pension funds at their own work. The managers of those funds are paid to ask the very questions which keep the company on its toes. And millions of us use the option every year of voting with our feet on the success of St. Michael. �Содержание We can choose whether to buy there or somewhere else. That is real public ownership – and if the public ceased to benefit, then M&S would cease to exist. What is it, then, that keeps them going? It is their incentive to satisfy their customers – you and me – the public. Despite what the Socialists would have you think, theirs is not an unusual story. It is reflected in thousands of firms throughout the land. Successful firms, proving by their results that today’s crisis is not one of free enterprise, but one caused by Socialism. Despite the handicaps imposed upon them, the taxation, the restrictions – they are still managing to give the public what it wants. These are the fallacies in the use of the word “public”. We must not let them get away with the deceptions and the half – truths which swarm around their dogma. Whenever we see the word “public” we must question it. How do the public benefit? What choice does the public have? Choice is crucial in this. When a man moves his family into a Council house, we must make sure he has the chance of buying it. The ambition to own the roof over your head is a totally natural one – and judging by the way the present Cabinet indulges in it – a pretty strong instinct it is, too. Why, then, do these so-called socialists work so actively to prevent home ownership in the Council estates? The answer is that if you give the ambitious man in the Council house the chance to buy it, you lose control over him. A socialist system which has penetrated so far in its control over people that it can dictate the colour of their front doors is a system which will never let go control of the whole house. People might paint their doors a different colour, for a start. We have always been the party of home ownership. Home ownership not only means security for the individual, it also means security and continuity for society as well. �Содержание Security because people who work hard to buy their own homes have learned the responsibility of property and have a respect for other people’s property as well. Continuity because the ownership of a house is not just for one generation – its value is in more ways than one passed on to the next, and the next. The only way for the majority of people to have any real say in where they live and how they live is by extending home ownership. When we came to power in 1951, home ownership was only 29 per cent. In 1964 it was 45 per cent. By the time we had left Office in 1974 it was 52 per cent. And with our policies the figure will go even higher. Housing policy shows that the Conservative way really does work for the public in the true sense of the word. When parents send their children to school, and I am talking about local authority schools – not fee paying schools – we must also see that some choice is available. In no field has the exclusion of the public been so severe as in the schools they nominally own, in whose name they are nominally run. I do not wish to get embroiled here in the controversy currently raging about the running of William Tyndale School. It would be quite wrong for me to comment while the inquiry is still sitting. But there is one observation of fact about it, which can be made. That is that matters came to a head when the numbers of ordinary parents withdrawing their children from the school reached alarming proportions. That was the only way they could make their views felt. They voted with their feet – just as surely as people would vote with their feet if Marks and Spencers ceased to provide value for money. Nobody wants to see a school shut down – no more than they want to see a firm put out of business. That is why from the start we must make them more responsive to parents’ wishes. That is why there must be choice of the type of education our children are given. It is true that some children flower quickly in the atmosphere of what is called the “progressive” classroom. Others need the more organised structure of the traditional system. But parents should not be told which their children are going to get, and denied any choice at all. We believe people are not mere cyphers to be ordered this way and that, into this job or that, into this house or that, their children sent to this school or that. �Содержание Socialists believe people are not to be trusted with choice. I suppose because we might learn to use it. And enjoy it. And then where would it all end? Socialism is the denial of choice, the denial of choice for ordinary people in their everyday lives. There is a will in Britain to work and build up the future for our children. But Socialists don’t trust the people. Churchill did. We do. �Содержание Donald Trump. Inaugural Address Chief Justice Roberts, President Carter, President Clinton, President Bush, fellow Americans and people of the world – thank you. We the citizens of America have now joined a great national effort to rebuild our county and restore its promise for all our people. Together we will determine the course of America for many, many years to come. Together we will face challenges. We will confront hardships. But we will get the job done. Every four years we gather on these steps to carry out the orderly and peaceful transfer of power. And we are grateful to President Obama and First Lady Michelle Obama for their gracious aid throughout this transition. They have been magnificent, thank you. Today’s ceremony, however, has very special meaning because today we are not merely transferring power from one administration to another – but transferring it from Washington DC and giving it back to you the people. For too long a small group in our nation’s capital has reaped the rewards of government while the people have borne the cost. Washington flourished but the people did not share in its wealth. Politicians prospered but the jobs left and the factories closed. The establishment protected itself but not the citizens of our country. Their victories have not been your victories. Their triumphs have not been your triumphs. While they have celebrated there has been little to celebrate for struggling families all across our land. That all changes starting right here and right now because this moment is your moment. It belongs to you. It belongs to everyone gathered here today and everyone watching all across America today. This is your day. This is your celebration. And this – the United States of America – is your country. What truly matters is not what party controls our government but that this government is controlled by the people. Today, January 20 2017, will be remembered as the day the people became the rulers of this nation again. The forgotten men and women of our country will be forgotten no longer. Everyone is listening to you now. �Содержание You came by the tens of millions to become part of a historic movement – the likes of which the world has never seen before. At the centre of this movement is a crucial conviction – that a nation exists to serve its citizens. Americans want great schools for their children, safe neighbourhoods for their families and good jobs for themselves. These are just and reasonable demands Mothers and children trapped in poverty in our inner cities, rusted out factories scattered like tombstones across the landscape of our nation. An education system flushed with cash, but which leaves our young and beautiful students deprived of all knowledge. And the crime and the gangs and the drugs which deprive people of so much unrealised potential. We are one nation, and their pain is our pain, their dreams are our dreams, we share one nation, one home and one glorious destiny. Today I take an oath of allegiance to all Americans. For many decades, we’ve enriched foreign industry at the expense of American industry, subsidised the armies of other countries, while allowing the sad depletion of our own military. We’ve defended other nations’ borders while refusing to defend our own. And spent trillions and trillions of dollars overseas while America’s infrastructure has fallen into disrepair and decay. We have made other countries rich while the wealth, strength and confidence of our country has dissipated over the horizon. One by one, shutters have closed on our factories without even a thought about the millions and millions of those who have been left behind. But that is the past and now we are looking only to the future. We assembled here today are issuing a new decree to be heard in every city, in every foreign capital, in every hall of power – from this day on a new vision will govern our land – from this day onwards it is only going to be America first – America first! Every decision on trade, on taxes, on immigration, on foreign affairs will be made to benefit American workers and American families. Protection will lead to great prosperity and strength. I will fight for you with every bone in my body and I will never ever let you down. America will start winning again. America will start winning like never before. We will bring back our jobs, we will bring back our borders, we will bring back our wealth, we will bring back our dreams. �Содержание We will bring new roads and high roads and bridges and tunnels and railways all across our wonderful nation. We will get our people off welfare and back to work – rebuilding our country with American hands and American labour. We will follow two simple rules – buy American and hire American. We see good will with the nations of the world but we do so with the understanding that it is the right of all nations to put their nations first. We will shine for everyone to follow. We will reinforce old alliances and form new ones, and untie the world against radical Islamic terrorism which we will eradicate from the face of the earth. At the bed rock of our politics will be an allegiance to the United States. And we will discover new allegiance to each other. There is no room for prejudice. The bible tells us how good and pleasant it is when god’s people live together in unity. When America is united, America is totally unstoppable. There is no fear, we are protected and will always be protected by the great men and women of our military and most importantly we will be protected by god. Finally, we must think big and dream even bigger. As Americans, we know we live as a nation only when it is striving. We will no longer accept politicians who are always complaining but never doing anything about it. The time for empty talk is over, now arrives the hour of action. Do not allow anyone to tell you it cannot be done. No challenge can match the heart and fight and spirit of America. We will not fail, our country will thrive and prosper again. We stand at the birth of a new millennium, ready to unlock the mysteries of space, to free the earth from the miseries of disease, to harvest the energies, industries and technologies of tomorrow. A new national pride will stir ourselves, lift our sights and heal our divisions. It’s time to remember that old wisdom our soldiers will never forget, that whether we are black or brown or white, we all bleed the same red blood of patriots. We all enjoy the same glorious freedoms and we all salute the same great American flag and whether a child is born in the urban sprawl of Detroit or the windswept plains of Nebraska, they look at the same night sky, and dream the same dreams, and they are infused with the breath by the same almighty creator. �Содержание So to all Americans in every city near and far, small and large, from mountain to mountain, from ocean to ocean – hear these words – you will never be ignored again. Your voice, your hopes and dreams will define your American destiny. Your courage, goodness and love will forever guide us along the way. Together we will make America strong again, we will make America wealthy again, we will make America safe again and yes – together we will make America great again. Thank you. God bless you. And god bless America. �Содержание Sheryl Sandberg. Address to the Class of 2012 at HBS Sheryl Sandberg, the chief operating officer of Facebook, graduated from the Harvard Business School in 1995. The charismatic alumna and one of Silicon Valley’s newest billionaires returned to campus to deliver the Class Day keynote address to graduating students. The event is part of a student-led ceremony traditionally held the day before Harvard University’s Commencement exercises and the HBS diploma ceremony. Sandberg, who graduated in the top 5% of her HBS class, gave an inspiring, often humorous and sometimes provocative speech. She dispensed plenty of career advice, disclosed details of how she paved her own way to success in Silicon Valley, and addressed gender issues at work. And she noted that Facebook founder Mark Zuckerberg was all of 11 years old when she graduated with her MBA degree in 1995. It’s an honor to be here today to address HBS’s distinguished faculty, proud parents, patient guests, and most importantly, the class of 2012. Today was supposed to be a day of unbridled celebration and I know that’s no longer true. I join all of you in grieving for your classmate Nate. There are no words which can make this better. Though laden with sadness, today still marks a distinct and impressive achievement for this class. So please join me in giving our warmest congratulations to this class. When Dean Nohria asked me to speak here today, I thought, come talk to a group of people way younger and cooler than I am? I can do that. I do that every day at Facebook. I like being surrounded by young people, except when they say to me, “What was it like being in college without the internet?” or worse, “Sheryl, can you come here? We need to see what old people think of this feature”. When I was a student here 17 years ago, I studied social marketing with Professor Kash Rangan. One of the many examples Kash used to explain the concept of social marketing was the lack of organ donors in this country, which kills 18 people every single day. Earlier this month, Facebook launched a tool to support organ donations, something that stems directly from Kash’s work. Kash, we are all grateful for your dedication. It wasn’t really that long ago when I was sitting where you are, but the world has changed an awful lot. My section, section B, tried to have HBS’s first online class. We had to use an AOL chat room and dial up service. (Your parents can explain to you later what dial-up service is.) We had to pass out a list of screen names because it was unthinkable to put your real name on the internet. And it never worked. It kept crashing. The world just wasn’t set up for 90 people to communicate at once online. But for a few brief moments, we glimpsed the future – a future where technology would power who we are and connect us to our real colleagues, our real family, our real friends. It used to be that in order to reach more people than you could talk to in a day, you had to be rich and famous and powerful. You had to be a celebrity, a politician, a CEO. But that’s not true today. Now ordinary people have voice, not just those of us lucky to go to HBS, but �Содержание anyone with access to Facebook, Twitter, a mobile phone. This is disrupting traditional power structures and leveling traditional hierarchy. Control and power are shifting from institutions to individuals, from the historically powerful to the historically powerless. And all of this is happening so much faster than I could have imagined when I was sitting where you are today – and Mark Zuckerberg was 11 years old. As the world becomes more connected and less hierarchical, traditional career paths are shifting as well. In 2001, after working in the government, I moved out to Silicon Valley to try to find a job. My timing wasn’t really that good. The bubble had crashed. Small companies were closing. Big companies were laying people off. One CEO looked at me and said, “we wouldn’t even think about hiring someone like you”. After a while I had a few offers and I had to make a decision, so what did I do? I am MBA trained, so I made a spreadsheet. I listed my jobs in the columns and my criteria in the rows. One of the jobs on that sheet was to become Google’s first Business Unit general manager, which sounds good now, but at the time no one thought consumer internet companies could ever make money. I was not sure there was actually a job there at all; Google had no business units, so what was there to generally manage? And the job was several levels lower than jobs I was being offered at other companies. So I sat down with Eric Schmidt, who had just become the CEO, and I showed him the spreadsheet and I said, this job meets none of my criteria. He put his hand on my spreadsheet and he looked at me and said, “Don’t be an idiot”. Excellent career advice. And then he said, “Get on a rocket ship. When companies are growing quickly and having a lot of impact, careers take care of themselves. And when companies aren’t growing quickly or their missions don’t matter as much, that’s when stagnation and politics come in. If you’re offered a seat on a rocket ship, don’t ask what seat. Just get on.” About six and one-half years later, when I was leaving Google, I took that advice to heart. I was offered CEO jobs at a bunch of companies, but I went to Facebook as COO. At the time people said, why are you going to work for a 23-year-old? The traditional metaphor for careers is a ladder, but I no longer think that metaphor holds. It just doesn’t make sense in a less hierarchical world. When I was first at Facebook, a woman named Lori Goler, a 1997 graduate of HBS, was working in marketing at eBay and I knew her a bit socially. She called me and said, “I want to talk with you about coming to work with you at Facebook. So I thought about calling you and telling you all the things I’m good at and all the things I like to do. But I figured that everyone is doing that. So instead I want to know what’s your biggest problem and how can I solve it?” My jaw hit the floor. I’d hired thousands of people up to that point in my career, but no one had ever said anything like that. I had never said anything like that. Job searches are always about the job searcher, but not in Lori’s case. I said, “You’re hired. My biggest problem is recruiting and you can solve it”. So Lori changed fields into something she never thought she’d do, went down a level to start in a new field. She has since been promoted and runs all of People Operations at Facebook and is doing an extraordinary job. �Содержание Lori has a great metaphor for careers. She says they’re not a ladder, they’re a jungle gym. As you start your post-HBS career, look for opportunities, look for growth, look for impact, look for mission. Move sideways, move down, move on, move off. Build your skills, not your resume. Evaluate what you can do, not the title they’re going to give you. Do real work. Take a sales quota, a line role, an ops job. Don’t plan too much, and don’t expect a direct climb. If I had mapped out my career when I was sitting where you are, I would have missed my career. You are entering a different business world than I entered. Mine was just starting to get connected. Yours is hyper-connected. Mine was competitive. Yours is way more competitive. Mine moved quickly, yours moves even more quickly. As traditional structures are breaking down, leadership has to evolve as well – from hierarchy to shared responsibility, from command and control to listening and guiding. You’ve been trained by this great institution not just to be part of these trends, but to lead. As you lead in this new world, you will not be able to rely on who you are or the degree you hold. You’ll have to rely on what you know. Your strength will not come from your place on some org chart, but from building trust and earning respect. You’re going to need talent, skill, and imagination and vision. But more than anything else, you’re going to need the ability to communicate authentically, to speak so that you inspire the people around you and to listen so that you continue to learn each and every day on the job. If you watch young children, you’ll immediately notice how honest they are. My friend Betsy from my section a few years after business school was pregnant with her second child. Her first child was about five and said, “Mommy, where is the baby?” She said, “The baby is in my tummy”. He said, “Aren’t the baby’s arms in your arms?” She said, “No, the baby’s in my tummy”. “Are the baby’s legs in your legs?” “No, the whole baby is in my tummy.” Then he said, “Then Mommy, what is growing in your butt?” As adults, we are never this honest. And that’s not a bad thing. I have borne two children and the last thing I needed were those comments. But it’s not always a good thing either. Because all of us, and especially leaders, need to speak and hear the truth. The workplace is an especially difficult place for anyone to tell the truth, because no matter how flat we want our organizations to be, all organizations have some form of hierarchy. This means that one person’s performance is assessed by someone else’s perception. This is not a setup for honesty. Think about how people speak in a typical workforce. Rather than say, “I disagree with our expansion strategy” or better yet, “this seems truly stupid”. They say, “I think there are many good reasons why we’re entering this new line of business, and I’m certain the management team has done a thorough ROI analysis, but I’m not sure we have fully considered the downstream effects of taking this step forward at this time”. As we would say at Facebook, three letters: WTF. Truth is better used by using simple language. Last year, Mark decided to learn Chinese and as part of studying, he would spend an hour or so each week with some of our employees who were native Chinese speakers. One day, one of them was trying to tell him something about her manager. She said this long sentence and he said, “simpler please”. And then she said it �Содержание again and he said, “no, I still don’t understand, simpler please”…and so on and so on. Finally, in sheer exasperation, she burst out, “my manager is bad”. Simple and clear and very important for him to know. People rarely speak this clearly in the workforce or in life. And as you get more senior, not only will people speak less clearly to you but they will overreact to the small things you say. When I joined Facebook, one of the things I had to do was build the business side of the company and put some systems into place. But I wanted to do it without destroying the culture that made Facebook great. So one of the things I tried to do was encourage people not to do formal PowerPoint presentations for meetings with me. I would say things like, “Don’t do PowerPoint presentations for meetings with me. Instead, come in with a list of what you want to discuss”. But everyone ignored me and they kept doing their presentations meeting after meeting, month after month. So about two years in, I said, “OK, I hate rules but I have a rule: no more PowerPoint in my meetings”. About a month later I was about to speak to our global sales team on a big stage and someone came up to me and said, “Before you get on that stage, you really should know everyone’s pretty upset about the no PowerPoint with clients thing”. So I got on the stage and said, “one, I meant no PowerPoint with me. But two, more importantly, next time you hear something that’s really stupid, don’t adhere to it. Fight it or ignore it, even if it’s coming from me or Mark”. A good leader recognizes that most people won’t feel comfortable challenging authority, so it falls upon authority to encourage them to question. It’s easy to say that you’re going to encourage feedback but it’s hard to do, because unfortunately it doesn’t always come in a format we want to hear. When I first started at Google, I had a team of four people and it was really important to me that I interview everyone. For me, being part of my team meant I had to know you. When the team had grown to about 100 people, I realized it was taking longer to schedule my interviews. So one day at my meeting of just my direct reports, I said “maybe I should stop interviewing,” fully expecting them to jump in and say “no, your interviews are a critical part of the process.” They applauded. Then they fell over themselves explaining that I was the bottleneck of all time. I was embarrassed. Then I was angry and I spent a few hours just quietly fuming. Why didn’t they tell me I was a bottleneck? Why did they let me go on slowing them down? Then I realized that if they hadn’t told me, it was my fault. I hadn’t convinced them that I wanted that feedback and I would have to change that going forward. When you’re the leader, it is really hard to get good and honest feedback, no many how many times you ask for it. One trick I’ve discovered is that I try to speak really openly about the things I’m bad at, because that gives people permission to agree with me, which is a lot easier than pointing it out in the first place. To take one of many possible examples, when things are unresolved I can get a tad anxious. Really, when anything’s unresolved, I get anxious. I’m quite certain no one has accused me of being too calm. So I speak about it openly and that gives people permission to tell me when it’s happening. But if I never said anything, would anyone who works at Facebook walk up to me and say, “Hey Sheryl, calm down. You’re driving us all nuts!” I don’t think so. �Содержание As you graduate today, ask yourself, how will you lead. Will you use simple and clear language? Will you seek out honesty? When you get honesty back, will you react with anger or with gratitude? As we strive to be more authentic in our communication, we should also strive to be more authentic in a broader sense. I talk a lot about bringing your whole self to work – something I believe in deeply. Motivation comes from working on things we care about. But it also comes from working with people we care about. And in order to care about someone, you have to know them. You have to know what they love and hate, what they feel, not just what they think. If you want to win hearts and minds, you have to lead with your heart as well as your mind. I don’t believe we have a professional self from Mondays through Fridays and a real self for the rest of the time. That kind of division probably never worked, but in today’s world, with real and authentic voice, it makes even less sense. I’ve cried at work. I’ve told people I’ve cried at work. And it’s been reported in the press that “Sheryl Sandberg cried on Mark Zuckerberg’s shoulder”, which is not exactly what happened. I talk about my hopes and fears and ask people about theirs. I try to be myself – honest about my strengths and weaknesses – and I encourage others to do the same. It is all professional and it is all personal, all at the very same time. I recently started speaking up about the challenges women face in the workforce, something I only had the courage to do in the last few years. Before this, I did my career like everyone else does it. I never told anyone I was a girl. Don’t tell. I left the lights on when I went home to do something for my kids. I locked my office door and pumped milk for my babies while I was on conference calls. People would ask, “what’s that sound?” I would say, “What sound?” “I hear a beep.” “Oh, there’s a fire truck outside my office.” But the lack of progress over the past decade has convinced me we need to start talking about this. I graduated from HBS in 1995 and I thought it was completely clear that by the time someone from my year was invited to speak at this podium, we would have achieved equality in the workforce. But women at the top – C-level jobs – are stuck at 15–16 percent and have not moved in a decade. Not even close to 50 % and no longer growing. We need to acknowledge openly that gender remains an issue at the highest levels of leadership. The promise of equality is not equality. We need to start talking about this. We need to start talking about how women underestimate their abilities compared to men and how for women, but not men, success and likeability are negatively correlated. That means that as a woman is more successful in your workplaces, she will be less liked. This means that women need a different form of management and mentorship, a different form of sponsorship and encouragement than men. There aren’t enough senior women out there to do it, so it falls upon the men who are graduating today just as much or more as the women, not just to talk about gender but to help these women succeed. When they hear a woman is really great at her job but not liked, take a deep breath and ask why. We need to start talking openly about the flexibility all of us need to have both a job and a life. �Содержание A couple of weeks ago in an interview I said that I leave the office at 5:30 p.m. to have dinner with my children. I was shocked at the press coverage. One of my friends said I couldn’t get more headlines if I had murdered someone with an ax. This showed me this is an unresolved issue for all of us, men and women alike. Otherwise, everyone would not write so much about it. And maybe, most importantly, we need to start talking about how fewer women than men, even from places like HBS, even likely in this class, aspire to the very top jobs. We will not close the leadership gap until we close the professional ambition gap. We need more women not just to sit at the table, but as President Obama said a few weeks ago at Barnard, to take their rightful seats at the head of the table. One of the reasons I was so excited to be here today is that this is the 50th anniversary of letting women into this school. Dean Noria, who is so passionate about getting more women into leadership positions, told me that he wanted me to speak this year for that reason. I met a woman from that first class once. She told me that when they first came in, they took a men’s room and converted it to a woman’s room. But they left the urinals in. She thought the message was clear – “we are not sure this whole woman thing is going to work out and if not, we don’t want to have to reinstall the urinals”. The urinals are long gone. Let’s make sure that no one ever misses them. As you and your classmates spread out across the globe and walk across this stage tomorrow, I wish for you four things First, keep in touch via Facebook. This is critical to your future success! And since we’re public now, why you are there, click on an ad or two. Two, that you make the effort to speak as well as seek the truth. Three, that you remain true to and open about your authentic self. And four, that your generation accomplishes what mine has failed to do. Give us a world where half our homes are run by men and half our institutions are run by women. I’m pretty sure that would be a better world. I join everyone here in offering my most sincere congratulations to the HBS Class of 2012. Give yourselves a huge round of applause. �Содержание PART III. THE LANGUAGE OF SCIENCE The Main Features of Scientific Style Anna Wierzbicka. English: Meaning and Culture. English as a Cultural Universe Steven Arthur Pinker. The Language Instinct. How the Mind Creates Language Scientific Texts for Self-Guided Analysis Steven Pinker. The Language Instinct. How the Mind Creates language Geoffrey Leech. Semantics. The Study of Meaning Robin Lakoff. You Are What You Say �Содержание The Main Features of Scienti ic Style The language of science is governed by the aim of the functional style of scientific prose, which is to prove a hypothesis, to create new concepts, to disclose the internal laws of existence, development, relations between different phenomena, etc. The anguage means used, therefore, tend to be objective, precise, unemotional, devoid of any individuality; there is a striving for the most generalized form of expression. 1. The first and most noticeable feature of this style is the logical sequence of utterances with clear indication of their interrelations and interdependence. It will not be an exaggeration to say that in no other functional style we find such a developed and varied system of connectives as in scientific prose. 2. The second equally important feature of this style is the use of terms specific to each given branch of science. Due to the rapid dissemination of scientific and technical ideas, we may observe the process of “de-terminization”, that is, some scientific and technical terms begin to circulate outside the narrow field they belong to and eventually begin to develop new meanings. But the overwhelming majority of terms do not undergo this process and remain the property of scientific prose. There they are born, may develop new terminological meanings, and there they die. No other field of human activity is so prolific in coining new words as science is. The necessity to penetrate deeper into the essence of things and phenomena gives rise to new concepts, which require new words to name them. Further, the general vocabulary employed in scientific prose bears its direct referential meaning, that is, words used in scientific prose will always tend to be used in their primary logical meaning. Nor will there be any words with contextual meaning. Even the possibility of ambiguity is avoided. Furthermore, terms are coined so as to be self-explanatory to the greatest possible degree. But neutral and common literary words used in scientific prose will be explained, even if their meaning is only slightly modified. In modern scientific prose an interesting phenomenon arises – the exchange of terms between various branches of science. Self-sufficiency in any branch of science is now a thing of the past. The exchange of terminology may be regarded as a neutral outcome of collaboration of specialists. Mathematics has priority in this respect. Mathematical terms have left their own domain and travel freely in other sciences, including linguistics. 3. A third characteristic feature of scientific style is sentence patterns. They are of 3 types: postulatory, argumentative and formulative. A hypothesis must be based on facts already known. Therefore, every piece of scientific prose will begin with postulatory pronouncements which are taken as self-evident and needing no proof. The writer’s own ideas are shaped in formulae, arguments, etc., that is, in sentences giving reasons for further conclusions. 4. A fourth observable feature of the style of modern scientific prose is the use of quotations and references. They sometimes occupy as much as half a page. They also have a definite compositional pattern, namely, the name of the writer referred to, the title of the work quoted, the publishing house, the place and year it was published, and the page of the excerpt quoted or referred to. �Содержание 5. A fifth feature of the style under discussion is the frequent use of foot-notes, not of the reference kind, but digressive in character. This is in full accord with the requirement of the style, which is logical coherence of ideas expressed. 6. The impersonality of scientific writings can also be considered a typical feature of this style. It is mainly revealed in the frequent use of passive constructions and impersonal scientific “we” followed by the verbs suppose, assume, conclude, infer, point out, etc. �Содержание Anna Wierzbicka (born 1938) Professor Anna Wierzbicka is a Professor in the Linguistics Program, School of Language Studies, Arts. In her 1972 book “Semantic Primitives” she launched a theory now known under the acronym “NSM” (Natural Semantic Metalanguage), which is now internationally recognized as one of the world’s leading theories of language and meaning. This approach has been used in hundreads of semantic studies across many languages and cultures. She has published over twenty books and edited or coedited several others. Her work spans a number of disciplines, including anthropology, psychology, cognitive science, philosophy and religious studies as well as linguistics, and has been published in many journals across all these disciplines (e.g., Language, American Anthropologist, Man, Anthropological Linguistics, Cognition and Emotion, Culture and Psychology, Ethos, Philosophica, Brain and Behaviourial Sciences, The Journal of Cognition and Culture etc.). Professor Wierzbicka is a Fellow of the Australian Academy of the Humanities, the Australian Academy of Social Sciences, and of the Russian Academy of Sciences, and the Polish Academy of Arts and Sciences. She has two Honorary Doctorates, one from Marie CurieSklodowska University, Poland (2004) and one from Warsaw University, Poland (2006). She is the winner of the Dobrushin Prize for 2010 (established in Russia in honour of the Russian mathematician Roland Lvovich Dobrushin) and of the Polish Science Foundation’s 2010 prize for the humanities and social sciences. English: Meaning and Culture Chapter 1 English as a Cultural Universe 1.1. English – the Most Widely Used Language in the World Few would now disagree with the view expressed in Quirk et al.’s (1985, 2) Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language that “English is the world’s most important language”. It is certainly the world’s most widely used language. As David Crystal noted more than a decade ago in his Encyclopedic Dictionary of Language and Languages (1992, 121), it is spoken “by a large and ever-increasing number of people – 800,000,000 by a conservative estimate, 1,500,000,000 by a liberal estimate... It has official status in over 60 countries. Estimates also suggest that at least 150 million people use English fluently as a foreign language, and three or four times this number with some degree of competence... English is also the language of international air traffic control, and the chief language of world publishing, science and technology”. Crystal’s more recent estimates are even higher (Crystal 2001, 2003a, 2003b). In the words of the Indian American linguist Braj Kachru (1997, 69), “the hunger for learning the �Содержание language – with whatever degree of competence – is simply insatiable”. Given the rapidly expanding role of English in the contemporary world, it is hardly surprising that numerous books concerned with different aspects of English, both scholarly and pedagogical, are published every year. And yet there is one striking gap in this literature: although many books have been and are being published that link the Japanese language with Japanese culture or Chinese language with Chinese culture, hardly any recent books explore the links between the English language and Anglo culture. There are, no doubt, many reasons for this weakness within the huge literature dealing with English. I believe one of them is that in recent times considerable opposition has developed in the English-speaking world to the notion of “a culture”, that is, “culture in the singular”, an opposition linked with fears of “essentialism” and “stereotyping”. Although the notion of “Japanese culture’ may be frowned on, it does not usually evoke a reaction as suspicious, or even hostile, as the notion of “Anglo culture”. No doubt this is partly because the Japanese language is spoken mostly in one region, whereas English is widely spoken in many different parts of the world. The question “to whom does this language belong?” posed recently (with respect to German) by the German Arab writer of Moroccan origin, Abdellatif Belfellah (1996), raises more problems in the case of English than, for example, in the case of Japanese (or indeed German), and it reverberates throughout the literature on English and “Englishes” (e.g., Hayhow and Parker 1994; Widdowson 1994). The very fact that the use of English is so widespread, and that its role in the modern world is so all-embracing, means that trying to link it with any particular culture or way of living, thinking, or feeling seems all the more problematic. From the point of view of people in the postcolonial world, for whom the local variety of English is often their native language or the main language used outside the domestic sphere, discussions of the links between English and Anglo culture may even seem offensive or at least insensitive. From the point of view of “Anglo Celtic” speakers of English – in Britain, the United States, and elsewhere – discussions of possible links between English and Anglo culture may also seem to be best avoided. Quirk et al. (1985, 16), for example, emphasize the “cultural neutrality” of English: English, which we have referred to as a lingua franca, is pre-eminently the most international of languages. Though the mention of the language may at once remind us of England, on the one hand, or cause association with the might of the United States on the other, it carries less implication of political or cultural specificity than any other living tongue. The authors do not deny the English language any cultural underpinning altogether: But the cultural neutrality of English must not be pressed too far. The literal or metaphorical use of such expressions as case law throughout the English-speaking world reflects a common heritage in our legal system; and allusions to or quotations from Shakespeare, the Authorized Version, Gray’s Elegy, Mark Twain, a sea shanty, a Negro spiritual or a Beatles song – wittingly or not – testify similarly to a shared culture. The Continent means “continental Europe” as readily in America and even Australia and New Zealand as it does in Britain. At other times, English equally reflects the independent and distinct culture of one or the other of �Содержание the English-speaking communities. (Quirk et al. 1985, 16) If English, which “may remind us of England”, nonetheless “equally reflects” the culture of numerous other communities, then the notion of a “shared culture” would seem to require some further discussion. But the subject is not mentioned again in that book. Crystal’s (2003b) influential recent books on the subject do not dwell on the issue of language and culture either. For example, his Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language (2003a), after noting that “English is now the dominant or official language in over 75 territories” (rather than 60, as in Crystal 1992), goes on to comment: “With over 60 political and cultural histories to consider, it is difficult to find safe generalizations about the range of social functions with which English has come to be identified. General statements about the structure of the language are somewhat easier to make”. (Crystal 2003a, 106) Clearly, if it is difficult to find “safe generalizations” about the social functions of English, the same applies to its cultural underpinnings, which are not discussed in the Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language any further. It is understandable that more than sixty cultural histories can’t be all discussed at length in a one-volume encyclopedia. But the question still suggests itself: what about the “shared culture” mentioned, for example, by Quirk et al.’s A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language (1985)? The founder of modern general linguistics, Wilhelm von Humboldt, affirmed that “there resides in every language a characteristic world-view... every language contains the whole conceptual fabric and mode of presentation of a portion of mankind” (1988, 60). Although Humboldt’s language may now seem dated, twentieth-century “language-and-culture” studies have not undermined this view – quite the contrary. Should we now modify Humboldt to say “every language but English”? Because English, unlike other languages, is “neutral” – a purely functional international language free from the baggage of any particular history and tradition? Or perhaps because English is so diversified that while sixty or more different traditions may be reflected in it there isn’t any one tradition that provides some sort of shared “conceptual fabric” (in Humboldt’s sense)? With the growing importance of English in the contemporary world, there is an increasing urgency to the question of whether there is an irreconcilable conflict between, on the one hand, the view that English is shared by people belonging to many different cultural traditions and, on the other, the notion that English itself – like any other language – is likely to have certain cultural assumptions and values embedded in it. The position taken in this book is that while there are many “Englishes” around the world (all of them worthy of recognition, appreciation, and study), there is also an “Anglo” English – an English of the “inner circle” (Kachru 1985, 1992), including “the traditional bases of English, where it is the primary language: ... the USA, UK, Ireland, Canada, Australia and New Zealand” (Crystal 2003b, 60) and that this Anglo English is not a cultural tabula rasa. 1.2. English and Englishes As the provocative title of Tom McArthur’s The English Languages (1998) indicates, the word English (in the singular) and the phrase the English language have for many commentators become problematic. With the expansion of English worldwide came its diversification, and so �Содержание many different varieties of English are now used in the world that the propriety of the term English itself is increasingly called into question. For millions of “ordinary people”, however, especially those who have their hearts set on learning “English” or having their children learn “English”, the news that according to some language professionals “English” does not exist any more is unlikely to be of much interest. On the other hand, the notion that there are many varieties of English and that in some contexts it may be appropriate to use the term “English” with a modifier can be relevant outside academic circles. The distinction between, for example, “British English” and “American English” is widely accepted as useful. It is also recognized that some other language varieties are sufficiently close to British English and American English to be perceived as “varieties of English” and yet are more different from British English and American English than these two are from one another – for example, Indian English, Nigerian English, and Singapore English. Braj Kachru’s (1985) proposed distinction between the “inner circle” and the “outer circle” of English has been widely accepted in the literature as pertinent and helpful. In accordance with this distinction, we can say that, for example, Australian English – different as it is in many ways from both British and American English – belongs nonetheless to the inner circle, whereas, for example, Singapore English belongs to the outer one. Differences between different “varieties of English” have often been adduced in the literature as an argument against linking the concept of “English” with that “culture”: how can English be an expression of culture (so the argument goes) if it is used in so many different societies and if there are so many different “Englishes”? As I have argued for decades, however, the fact that there are many varieties of English, linked with different societies and different cultural traditions, supports rather than undermines the Humboldtian view of language as an expression of culture. For example, the unique character of Australian English, consistent with the unique aspects of Australian culture, illustrates the closeness of the links that exist between the language spoken by a given community and its distinctive way of living and thinking (i.e., its culture). At the same time, the fact that Australian English shares a great deal with British English – more so than it does, for example, with Singapore English – reflects the common cultural heritage of Britain and Australia. I have been studying Australian English as an expression of Australian culture for more than two decades (Wierzbicka 1984, 1986a, 1991, 1992, 1997, 2002a, 2003a, 2003b). I have also studied (on a much more modest scale) Singapore English as an expression of Singapore culture (Wierzbicka 2003c; Besemeres and Wierzbicka 2003; for a much more extensive study, see Wong 2004a, 2004b, 2005). In both cases, a contrastive perspective is of paramount importance: it is illuminating to compare Australian English with British English and to compare Singapore English with Anglo English. Kachru’s concept of the inner circle reflects his interest in distinguishing the “new Englishes” (such as Indian English and Singapore English) from the older varieties. My own interest in identifying aspects of the shared cultural core of the older varieties makes the term �Содержание “Anglo English” more appropriate than the contrastive term “English(es) of the inner circle” (not to mention cryptonyms like ENL, from “English as a native language”, which are problematic for a variety of reasons, as well as technical and cryptic). In essence, however, “Anglo English” studied in this book corresponds to Kachru’s “English of the inner circle”. Although Anglo English, too, is an abstraction, it is in my view a concept that captures an important historical and cultural reality. It goes without saying that Anglo English is neither homogeneous nor unchanging, and the fact that, for example, Australian English differs in many ways from British English makes this abundantly clear. At the same time, to adequately characterize Englishes of the outer circle such as Singapore English and to fully understand them as expressions of local cultures, it is eminently useful to be able to compare and contrast them with Anglo English. In a sense, this book is, primarily, about Anglo English, both as an expression and as a vital aspect of Anglo culture. The phrase “Anglo culture” is even more controversial these days than “the English language” (not to mention “Anglo English”, which is hardly used at all): to speak of Anglo culture is to run the risk of being accused of essentialism, imperialism, even racism. But the attacks on the notion of culture in general, and Anglo culture in particular, are little more than academic Schongeisterei. As I wrote a decade ago, arguing against anthropologists Wolf and Wallerstein, “while cultures are not immutable essences, with clearly drawn boundaries, to reduce us all as cultural beings to members of myriad groups – crosscutting, overlapping, and ever evolving, means to overlook the central reality... no one is more acutely aware of this reality than a bilingual who lives his or her life in two languages and cultures” (Wierzbicka 1997, 18; see also 2005a, 2005b). The concept of Anglo culture is potentially particularly useful to millions of immigrants to Anglophone countries like Britain, the United States, and Australia. To deny the validity of this concept means to deny the immigrants culture training, which is essential to their social advancement. The same applies to Anglo English, which is an essential part of Anglo culture. Western scholars who are more focused on ideology than on the realities of the immigrant condition have sometimes claimed that immigrants to English-speaking countries do not need (Anglo) English and are not interested in acquiring it. For example, Claire Kramsch (1998, 26) asserts that “immigrant language learners are increasingly disinclined to ... buy into the values and beliefs that underpin native speaker language use in their respective communities”. Kramsch supports her view on this point with a quote from the French semiotician Julia Kristeva (1988, 10): “The absorption of foreignness proposed by our societies turns out to be inacceptable [sic] for modern day individuals, who cherish their national and ethnic identity and their intrinsically subjective, irreducible difference.” As an immigrant myself, I can testify that such high-minded theoretical views do not match the reality of my own life. Much as I cherish my national and ethnic identity (not to mention my personal “irreducible difference”), during my thirty odd years of living in Australia I have had to absorb a good deal of “foreignness” (that is, in my case, “Angloness” and also “AngloAustralianness”) into my ways of speaking, thinking, and acting. In particular, I have had to learn to use words like fair, reasonable, and presumably (not to mention privacy) – and not just �Содержание words, but the ideas and the cultural scripts associated with them. Autobiographical testimonies by other immigrants to English-speaking countries are more consistent with my experience than with Kristeva’s theorizing (e.g., Chow 1999; Danquah 2000; Besemeres and Wierzbicka, to appear). 1.3. An Illustration: Words, Scripts, and Human Lives I will illustrate both the shared cultural content of Anglo English and its heterogeneity with two examples from Australian English. In a book-length essay entitled “Made in England: Australia’s British Inheritance”, the eminent Australian writer David Malouf (2003) emphasizes distinct features of Australian English such as “boldness and colour”, which “arise for the most part from a strong sense of humour and larrikin sense of play, qualities we might trace back to the cockney and criminal world of the convicts” (p. 49). At the same time, Malouf (who is himself of part-English, part-Lebanese background) stresses “ ‘kindred’ ties and feelings” linking Australians with all those who share the same habits of mind fostered and transmitted by the English language and often alien to people “outside the magic circle of Anglo-Saxon thinking” (p. 61). It is a circle characterized by “an ethos in which terms like ‘fair play’, ‘sportsmanship’, ‘team spirit’ are meant to be translated out of the narrow world of schoolboy rivalry and endeavour into the world of action and affairs; not as metaphors but as practical forms of behaviour” (p. 60). It is fascinating to see how often the untranslatable English word fair (see chapter 5) recurs in Malouf’s discussions of “Australia’s British inheritance” (as when he talks, for example, about Australia’s bonds “with people with whom we have a special relationship in which we are trusted to ‘play fair’, and to speak fair too”, p. 61). The concept of “fairness”, “made in England” but elaborated in Australia and given a special role in expressions like fair dinkum and a fair go (see OED 1989; AND 1988), is a good example of both the cultural continuity and cultural change evidenced by Australian English. A concept that illustrates innovation rather than continuity in Australian English and culture is that of “dobbing”. Dob, defined by the Oxford English Dictionary (1989) as “to betray, to inform against”, is described by it as “Australian slang”, but as I argued in earlier work, this description is misleading: “in Australia, dob in is not slang …, it is simply part of common everyday language, a word which is (still) in general use and which is clearly one of the key words in Australian English” (Wierzbicka 1997, 212). I have examined the meaning and the cultural significance of the verb dob and the noun dobber in a number of earlier publications (see Wierzbicka 1984, 1986a, 1991, 1992, 1997). Here, I will restrict myself to pointing out that the salient presence of these words in Australian English is linked with a powerful “cultural script”: “it is bad to dob, it is bad to be a dobber” (i.e., to “dob” on one’s “mates”) – a script that probably has its roots, at least partly, in the solidarity of convicts vis-a-vis the authorities in the early period of Australia’s history. The value of the traditional taboo against dobbing is now contested in public discussion in Australia, but the concept remains salient in everyday thinking and continues to influence people’s behavior, as the following recent quotes illustrate: A lot of kids who are bullied to say that “you just don’t dob”. (Queensland Government 2002) �Содержание The Australian attitude of “don’t dob in a mate” prevails within the adolescent subculture thus reducing the possibility that older teens will disclose those that bully. (Betlem 2001) Dob in a dumper. (Butler 2003) The continued relevance of the concept of “dobbing” in people’s (including immigrants’) lives is illustrated by the following testimony of a Chinese immigrant in Australia: The other day at the dinner table, I asked my 6 year-old boy, who is attending kindergarten, what he had learned in school. He happily told me that they learned how to deal with bullies. My son used his five fingers of his right hand and said: “First, talk friendly, second, talk firmly, third, ignore, fourth, walk away, and ...” Before he finished, my nephew, who is a 18 year-old Chinese boy, said: “Report to the teacher”. My son burst into tears and said: “No, not report to the teacher. I don’t like the word ‘report’. It doesn’t sound nice.” From my son’s reaction to the word “report” I can see that the concept of “report” is different from my Chinese nephew to my half-Chinese half-Australian Australian-born son. For a Chinese the word “report” is just to tell something to somebody, but “report” to an Australian kid in this context is not just to tell somebody something. It is “dobbing in”, which is a big offence, not at all encouraged in Australian culture. This incident reminds me of another situation in China. If you ask a primary school student the question “What do you do if someone in school bullies you or does a bad thing to you?” 90 % of the answers will be “Go to report to the teacher”. “Talk friendly, but firmly, ignore and walk away” are not part of the main attitude in dealing with bullies in China. “Dobbing in” in China is not as offensive as in Australia. (Wang 2005) Neither language nor culture stands still, but in every period there are certain shared understandings and shared cultural norms that find their expression in a community’s ways of speaking. Words, with their meanings, provide evidence of the reality of such shared understandings. Anglo English words like fair and fairness are constitutive of Anglo culture, and distinctively Australian words like dob and dobber, of Australian culture. Neither expressions like English, Anglo English, and Australian English nor those like Anglo culture and Australian culture stand for any unchanging monolithic realities with sharp boundaries. They stand for certain constructs, but these constructs are not fictions, and they have an impact on people’s lives. Questions and Tasks for the Analysis of the Text 1. Give a short summary of the text. What are the problems addressed in the chapter? How topical are they? What accounts for their topicality? 2. What means of argumentation does the author employ to support her statements? E.g., how does she support her thesis about the dominant place of the English language in the world? How does the author explain the fact that the notion of the Japanese language and culture is never frowned upon whereas the notion of the English language and culture is? How do you understand the term “cultural neutrality of English”? What stands behind this term? 3. Does she support the idea of the “cultural neutrality” of English or does she argue against the idea of cultural neutrality? What arguments does the author use to support her opinion that “Anglo English is not a cultural tabula rasa”? How does the fact of the author being an �Содержание immigrant help her in her argumentation? Whose opinion seems more plausible to you? Is English culture-specific like all languages or should it be treated as an exception? 4. What is the essence of the “inner” and “outer circle division” of Englishes? How does this idea help in solving the problem of cultural specificity of English? 5. What does her example of a Chinese immigrant in Australia illustrate? Can you give similar examples from your own experience. 6. The first and most noticeable feature of this style is the logical sequence of utterances with clear indication of their interrelations and interdependence As we read in the short characteristic of scientific style, the first and most noticeable feature of this style is the logical sequence of utterances with clear indication of their interrelations and interdependence. How is the logical sequence of the sentences in the text achieved? Analyze the connectives used by the author and comment on their role in achieving the semantic and structural cohesion of the text. 7. Another characteristic feature of scientific style is the abundant use of terms. Point out the linguistic terms used in the text. Scientific language is also characterized by the use of the words in their direct, context independent meanings. Yet it does not absolutely exclude the use of metaphors, does it? Try to find cases of metaphors in the text and define their type (trite or original). 8. Still another characteristic feature of scientific style is the use of special sentence – patterns. The most frequent of them are: postulatory, argumentative and formulative. Find examples of these types in the text and comment on their functions. 9. Scientific texts are also characterized by the abundant use of quotations and references, which the authors use to argue for or against the points under discussion. Comments on the quotations Anna Wierzbicka uses and their function in the text. 10. The morphology of the scientific texts is characterized by the frequent use of passive constructions. Find the cases of passive constructions and account for their use. 11. Describing scientific texts some authors consider impersonality as a typical feature of this style. The effect of impersonality is achieved by the use of passive constructions and the use of the impersonal scientific “we”. Does Anna Wierzbicka follow the norms of scientific style very strictly or can we trace personal notes in her style? Give examples to support your opinion. 12. Summarize your observations for the final analysis of the text. �Содержание Steven Arthur Pinker (born 1954) Steven Arthur Pinker (born September 18, 1954) is a Canadian-born American cognitive scientist, psychologist, linguist, and popular science author. He is Johnstone Family Professor in the Department of Psychology at Harvard University, and is known for his advocacy of evolutionary psychology and the computational theory of mind. Pinker’s academic specializations are visual cognition and psycholinguistics. His experimental subjects include mental imagery, shape recognition, visual attention, children’s language development, regular and irregular phenomena in language, the neural bases of words and grammar, and the psychology of cooperation and communication, including euphemism, innuendo, emotional expression, and common knowledge. He has written two technical books that proposed a general theory of language acquisition and applied it to children’s learning of verbs. In particular, his work with Alan Prince published in 1989 critiqued the connectionist model of how children acquire the past tense of English verbs, arguing instead that children use default rules such as adding “-ed” to make regular forms, sometimes in error, but are obliged to learn irregular forms one by one. In his popular books, he has argued that the human faculty for language is an instinct, an innate behavior shaped by natural selection and adapted to our communication needs. He is the author of seven books for a general audience. Five of these, The Language Instinct (1994), How the Mind Works (1997), Words and Rules (2000), The Blank Slate (2002), and The Stuff of Thought (2007), describe aspects of the field of psycholinguistics and cognitive science, and include accounts of his own research. In the sixth book, The Better Angels of Our Nature (2011), Pinker makes the case that violence in human societies has, in general, steadily declined with time, and identifies six major causes of this decline. His seventh book, The Sense of Style (2014), is intended as a general style guide that is informed by modern science and psychology, offering advice on how to produce more comprehensible and unambiguous writing in nonfiction contexts and explaining why so much of today’s academic and popular writing is difficult for readers to understand. The Language Instinct (1994) is one of his most widely read books. As the title suggests, Pinker’s The Language Instinct supports the theory that language is innate and that humans have a common “universal grammar”. This is the major theme of his book. He also considers the relationship between language and thought, arguing against claims for a strong dependence of the latter on language. One of the most important concepts introduced in the book is one of “mentalese”. Mentalese is a universal, underlying language of the mind, related to, but different from, all natural spoken languages. It is used for thinking and �Содержание it is from mentalese that the thoughts get translated into the words and phrases of natural languages. Pinker uses this concept to put to rest the hypothesis of linguistic determinism: language shaping the thought along the lines of “what cannot be said cannot be thought about”. As critics say, in this book Steven Pinker explains everything you always wanted to know about language: how it works, how children learn it, how it changes, how the brain computes it, and how it evolved. With deft use of examples of humor and wordplay, Steven Pinker weaves our vast knowledge of language into a compelling story: language is a human instinct, wired into our brains by evolution. The Language Instinct received the William James Book Prize from the American Psychological Association and the Public Interest Award from the Linguistics Society of America. Noam Chomsky characterized it as “an extremely valuable book, very informative, and very well written”. Pinker has been named as one of the world’s most influential intellectuals by various magazines. He has won awards from the American Psychological Association, the National Academy of Sciences, the Royal Institution, the Cognitive Neuroscience Society and the American Humanist Association. He delivered the Gifford Lectures at the University of Edinburgh in 2013. He has served on the editorial boards of a variety of journals, and on the advisory boards of several institutions. He has frequently participated in public debates on science and society and is a regular contributor to the online science and culture digest from The Language Instinct. How the Mind Creates Language Chapter 3. Mentalese The year 1984 has come and gone, and it is losing its connotation of the totalitarian nightmare of George Orwell’s 1949 novel. But relief may be premature. In an appendix to “Nineteen Eighty-four”, Orwell wrote of an even more ominous date. In 1984, the infidel Winston Smith had to be converted with imprisonment, degradation, drugs, and torture; by 2050, there would be no Winston Smiths. For in that year the ultimate technology for thought control would be in place: the language Newspeak. The purpose of Newspeak was not only to provide a medium of expression for the world-view and mental habits proper to the devotees of Ingsoc [English Socialism], but to make all other modes of thought impossible. It was intended that when Newspeak had been adopted once and for all and Oldspeak forgotten, a heretical thought – that is, a thought diverging from the principles of Ingsoc – should be literally unthinkable, at least so far as thought is dependent on words. Its vocabulary was so constructed as to give exact and often very subtle expression to every meaning that a Party member could properly wish to express, while excluding all other meanings and also the possibility of arriving at them by indirect methods. This was done partly by the invention of new words, but chiefly by eliminating undesirable words and by stripping such words as remained of unorthodox meanings, and so far as possible of all secondary meanings whatever. To give a single example. The word free still existed in Newspeak, but it could only be used in such statements as “This dog is free from lice” or “This field is free from weeds”. It could not be used in its old sense of “politically free” or “intellectually free”, since political and intellectual freedom no longer existed even as concepts, and were therefore of necessity nameless. A person growing up with Newspeak as his sole language would no more know that equal had �Содержание once had the secondary meaning of “politically equal”, or that free had once meant “intellectually free”, than, for instance, a person who had never heard of chess would be aware of the secondary meanings attaching to queen and rook. There would be many crimes and errors which it would be beyond his power to commit, simply because they were nameless and therefore unimaginable. But there is a straw of hope for human freedom: Orwell’s caveat “at least so far as thought is dependent on words”. Note his equivocation: at the end of the first paragraph, a concept is unimaginable and therefore nameless; at the end of the second, a concept is nameless and therefore unimaginable. Is thought dependent on words? Do people literally think in English, Cherokee, Kivunjo, or, by 2050, Newspeak? Or are our thoughts couched in some silent medium of the brain – a language of thought, or “mentalese” – and merely clothed in words whenever we need to communicate them to a listener? No question could be more central to understanding the language instinct. In much of our social and political discourse, people simply assume that words determine thoughts. Inspired by Orwell’s essay “Politics and the English Language”, pundits accuse governments of manipulating our minds with euphemisms like pacification (bombing), revenue enhancement (taxes), and nonretention (firing). Philosophers argue that since animals lack language, they must also lack consciousness – Wittgenstein wrote, “A dog could not have the thought ‘perhaps it will rain tomorrow’ ” – and therefore they do not possess the rights of conscious beings. Some feminists blame sexist thinking on sexist language, like the use of he to refer to a generic person. Inevitably, reform movements have sprung up <…>. And supposedly there is a scientific basis for these assumptions: the famous Sapir-Whorf hypothesis of linguistic determinism, stating that people’s thoughts are determined by the categories made available by their language, and its weaker version, linguistic relativity, stating that differences among languages cause differences in the thoughts of their speakers. People who remember little else from their college education can rattle off the factoids: the languages that carve the spectrum into color words at different places, the fundamentally different Hopi concept of time, the dozens of Eskimo words for snow. The implication is heavy: the foundational categories of reality are not “in” the world but are imposed by one’s culture (and hence can be challenged, perhaps accounting for the perennial appeal of the hypothesis to undergraduate sensibilities). But it is wrong, all wrong. The idea that thought is the same thing as language is an example of what can be called a conventional absurdity: a statement that goes against all common sense but that everyone believes because they dimly recall having heard it somewhere and because it is so pregnant with implications. (The “fact” that we use only five percent of our brains, that lemmings commit mass suicide, that the Boy Scout Manual annually outsells all other books, and that we can be coerced into buying by subliminal messages are other examples.) Think about it. We have all had the experience of uttering or writing a sentence, then stopping and realizing that it wasn’t exactly what we meant to say. To have that feeling, there has to be a “what we meant to say” that is different from what we said. Sometimes it is not easy to find any words that properly convey a thought. When we hear or read, we usually remember the gist, not the exact words, so there has to be such a thing as a �Содержание gist that is not the same as a bunch of words. And if thoughts depended on words, how could a new word ever be coined? How could a child learn a word to begin with? How could translation from one language to another be possible? <…> As we shall see in this chapter, there is no scientific evidence that languages dramatically shape their speakers’ ways of thinking. But I want to do more than review the unintentionally comical history of attempts to prove that they do. The idea that language shapes thinking seemed plausible when scientists were in the dark about how thinking works or even how to study it. Now that cognitive scientists know how to think about thinking, there is less of a temptation to equate it with language just because words are more palpable than thoughts. By understanding why linguistic determinism is wrong, we will be in a better position to understand how language itself works when we turn to it in the next chapters. The linguistic determinism hypothesis is closely linked to the names Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf. Sapir, a brilliant linguist, was a student of the anthropologist Franz Boas. Boas and his students (who also include Ruth Benedict and Margaret Mead) were important intellectual figures in this century, because they argued that nonindustrial peoples were not primitive savages but had systems of language, knowledge, and culture as complex and valid in their world view as our own. In his study of Native American languages Sapir noted that speakers of different languages have to pay attention to different aspects of reality simply to put words together into grammatical sentences. For example, when English speakers decide whether or not to put -ed onto the end of a verb, they must pay attention to tense, the relative time of occurrence of the event they are referring to and the moment of speaking. Wintu speakers need not bother with tense, but when they decide which suffix to put on their verbs, they must pay attention to whether the knowledge they are conveying was learned through direct observation or by hearsay. Sapir’s interesting observation was soon taken much farther. Whorf was an inspector for the Hartford Fire Insurance Company and an amateur scholar of Native American languages, which led him to take courses from Sapir at Yale. In a much-quoted passage, he wrote: “We dissect nature along lines laid down by our native languages. The categories and types that we isolate from the world of phenomena we do not find there because they stare every observer in the face; on the contrary, the world is presented in a kaleidoscopic flux of impressions which has to be organized by our minds – and this means largely by the linguistic systems in our minds. We cut nature up, organize it into concepts, and ascribe significances as we do, largely because we are parties to an agreement to organize it in this way – an agreement that holds throughout our speech community and is codified in the patterns of our language. The agreement is, of course, an implicit and unstated one, but its terms are absolutely obligatory; we cannot talk at all except by subscribing to the organization and classification of data which the agreement decrees”. What led Whorf to this radical position? He wrote that the idea first occurred to him in his work as a fire prevention engineer when he was struck by how language led workers to misconstrue dangerous situations. For example, one worker caused a serious explosion by tossing a cigarette into an “empty” drum that in fact was full of gasoline vapor. Another lit a blowtorch near a “pool of water” that was really a basin of decomposing tannery waste, which, �Содержание far from being “watery”, was releasing inflammable gases. Whorf s studies of American languages strengthened his conviction. For example, in Apache, It is a dripping spring must be expressed “As water, or springs, whiteness moves downward”. “How utterly unlike our way of thinking!” he wrote. But the more you examine Whorf’s arguments, the less sense they make. Take the story about the worker and the “empty” drum. The seeds of disaster supposedly lay in the semantics of empty, which, Whorf claimed, means both “without its usual contents” and “null and void, empty, inert”. The hapless worker, his conception of reality molded by his linguistic categories, did not distinguish between the “drained” and “inert” senses, hence, flick ... boom! But wait. Gasoline vapor is invisible. A drum with nothing but vapor in it looks just like a drum with nothing in it at all. Surely this walking catastrophe was fooled by his eyes, not by the English language. The example of whiteness moving downward is supposed to show that the Apache mind does not cut up events into distinct objects and actions. Whorf presented many such examples from Native American languages. The Apache equivalent of The boat is grounded on the beach is “It is on the beach pointwise as an event of canoe motion”. He invites people to a feast becomes “He, or somebody, goes for eaters of cooked food”. He cleans a gun with a ramrod is translated as “He directs a hollow moving dry spot by movement of tool”. All this, to be sure, is utterly unlike our way of talking. But do we know that it is utterly unlike our way of thinking? As soon as Whorf s articles appeared, the psycholinguists Eric Lenneberg and Roger Brown pointed out two non sequiturs in his argument. First, Whorf did not actually study any Apaches; it is not clear that he ever met one. His assertions about Apache psychology are based entirely on Apache grammar – making his argument circular. Apaches speak differently, so they must think differently. How do we know that they think differently? Just listen to the way they speak! <…> The fundamentally different Hopi concept of time is one of the more startling claims about how minds can vary. Whorf wrote that the Hopi language contains “no words, grammatical forms, constructions, or expressions that refer directly to what we call ‘time / or to past, or future, or to enduring or lasting/’ ” He suggested, too, that the Hopi had “no general notion or intuition of time as a smooth flowing continuum in which everything in the universe proceeds at an equal rate, out of a future, through a present, into a past”. According to Whorf, they did not conceptualize events as being like points, or lengths of time like days as countable things. Rather, they seemed to focus on change and process itself, and on psychological distinctions between presently known, mythical, and conjecturally distant. The Hopi also had little interest in “exact sequences, dating, calendars, chronology.” What, then, are we to make of the following sentence translated from Hopi? Then indeed, the following day, quite early in the morning at the hour when people pray to the sun, around that time then he woke up the girl again. Perhaps the Hopi are not as oblivious to time as Whorf made them out to be. In his extensive study of the Hopi, the anthropologist Ekkehart Malotki, who reported this sentence, also �Содержание showed that Hopi speech contains tense, metaphors for time, units of time (including days, numbers of days, parts of the day, yesterday and tomorrow, days of the week, weeks, months, lunar phases, seasons, and the year), ways to quantify units of time, and words like “ancient”, “quick”, “long time”, and “finished”. Their culture keeps records with sophisticated methods of dating, including a horizon-based sun calendar, exact ceremonial day sequences, knotted calendar strings, notched calendar sticks, and several devices for timekeeping using the principle of the sundial. No one is really sure how Whorf came up with his outlandish claims, but his limited, badly analyzed sample of Hopi speech and his long-time leanings toward mysticism must have contributed. <…> People can be forgiven for overrating language. Words make noise, or sit on a page, for all to hear and see. Thoughts are trapped inside the head of the thinker. To know what someone else is thinking, or to talk to each other about the nature of thinking, we have to use – what else, words! It is no wonder that many commentators have trouble even conceiving of thought without words – or is it that they just don’t have the language to talk about it? As a cognitive scientist I can afford to be smug about common sense being true (thought is different from language) and linguistic determinism being a conventional absurdity. For two sets of tools now make it easier to think clearly about the whole problem. One is a body of experimental studies that break the word barrier and assess many kinds of nonverbal thought. The other is a theory of how thinking might work that formulates the questions in a satisfyingly precise way. We have already seen an example of thinking without language: Mr. Ford, the fully intelligent aphasic discussed in Chapter 2. (One could, however, argue that his thinking abilities had been constructed before his stroke on the scaffolding of the language he then possessed.) We have also met deaf children who lack a language and soon invent one. Even more pertinent are the deaf adults occasionally discovered who lack any form of language whatsoever – no sign language, no writing, no lip reading, no speech. In her recent book A Man Without Words, Susan Schaller tells the story of Ildefonso, a twenty-seven-year-old illegal immigrant from a small Mexican village whom she met while working as a sign language interpreter in Los Angeles. Ildefonso’s animated eyes conveyed an unmistakable intelligence and curiosity, and Schaller became his volunteer teacher and companion. He soon showed her that he had a full grasp of number: he learned to do addition on paper in three minutes and had little trouble understanding the base-ten logic behind two-digit numbers. In an epiphany reminiscent of the story of Helen Keller, Ildefonso grasped the principle of naming when Schaller tried to teach him the sign for “cat”. A dam burst, and he demanded to be shown the signs for all the objects he was familiar with. Soon he was able to convey to Schaller parts of his life story: how as a child he had begged his desperately poor parents to send him to school, the kinds of crops he had picked in different states, his evasions of immigration authorities. He led Schaller to other languageless adults in forgotten corners of society. Despite their isolation from the verbal world, they displayed many abstract forms of thinking, like rebuilding broken locks, handling money, playing card games, and entertaining each other with long pantomimed narratives. Our knowledge of the mental life of Ildefonso and other languageless adults must remain �Содержание impressionistic for ethical reasons: when they surface, the first priority is to teach them language, not to study how they manage without it. But there are other languageless beings who have been studied experimentally, and volumes have been written about how they reason about space, time, objects, number, rate, causality, and categories. Let me recount three ingenious examples. One involves babies, who cannot think in words because they have not yet learned any. One involves monkeys, who cannot think in words because they are incapable of learning them. The third involves human adults, who, whether or not they think in words, claim their best thinking is done without them. The developmental psychologist Karen Wynn has recently shown that five-month-old babies can do a simple form of mental arithmetic. She used a technique common in infant perception research. Show a baby a bunch of objects long enough, and the baby gets bored and looks away; change the scene, and if the baby notices the difference, he or she will regain interest. The methodology has shown that babies as young as five days old are sensitive to number. In one experiment, an experimenter bores a baby with an object, then occludes the object with an opaque screen. When the screen is removed, if the same object is present, the babies look for a little while, then get bored again. But if, through invisible subterfuge, two or three objects have ended up there, the surprised babies stare longer. In Wynn’s experiment, the babies were shown a rubber Mickey Mouse doll on a stage until their little eyes wandered. Then a screen came up, and a prancing hand visibly reached out from behind a curtain and placed a second Mickey Mouse behind the screen. When the screen was removed, if there were two Mickey Mouses visible (something the babies had never actually seen), the babies looked for only a few moments. But if there was only one doll, the babies were captivated – even though this was exactly the scene that had bored them before the screen was put in place. Wynn also tested a second group of babies, and this time, after the screen came up to obscure a pair of dolls, a hand visibly reached behind the screen and removed one of them. If the screen fell to reveal a single Mickey, the babies looked briefly; if it revealed the old scene with two, the babies had more trouble tearing themselves away. The babies must have been keeping track of how many dolls were behind the screen, updating their counts as dolls were added or subtracted. If the number inexplicably departed from what they expected, they scrutinized the scene, as if searching for some explanation. Vervet monkeys live in stable groups of adult males and females and their offspring. The primatologists Dorothy Cheney and Robert Seyfarth have noticed that extended families form alliances like the Montagues and Capulets. In a typical interaction they observed in Kenya, one juvenile monkey wrestled another to the ground screaming. Twenty minutes later the victim’s sister approached the perpetrator’s sister and without provocation bit her on the tail. For the retaliator to have identified the proper target, she would have had to solve the following analogy problem: A (victim) is to B (myself) as C (perpetrator) is to X, using the correct relationship “sister of” (or perhaps merely “relative of”; there were not enough vervets in the park for Cheney and Seyfarth to tell). But do monkeys really know how their groupmates are related to each other, and, more impressively, do they realize that different pairs of individuals like brothers and sisters can be related in the same way? Cheney and Seyfarth hid a loudspeaker behind a bush and played �Содержание tapes of a two-year-old monkey screaming. The females in the area reacted by looking at the mother of the infant who had been recorded – showing that they not only recognized the infant by its scream but recalled who its mother was. Similar abilities have been shown in the longtailed macaques that Verena Dasser coaxed into a laboratory adjoining a large outdoor enclosure. Three slides were projected: a mother at the center, one of her offspring on one side, and an unrelated juvenile of the same age and sex on the other. Each screen had a button under it. After the monkey had been trained to press a button under the offspring slide, it was tested on pictures of other mothers in the group, each one flanked by a picture of that mother’s offspring and a picture of another juvenile. More than ninety percent of the time the monkey picked the offspring. In another test, the monkey was shown two slides, each showing a pair of monkeys, and was trained to press a button beneath the slide showing a particular mother and her juvenile daughter. When presented with slides of new monkeys in the group, the subject monkey always picked the mother-and-offspring pair, whether the offspring was male, female, infant, juvenile, or adult. Moreover, the monkeys appeared to be relying not only on physical resemblance between a given pair of monkeys, or on the sheer number of hours they had previously spent together, as the basis for recognizing they were kin, but on something more subtle in the history of their interaction. Cheney and Seyfarth, who work hard at keeping track of who is related to whom in what way in the groups of animals they study, note that monkeys would make excellent primatologists. Many creative people insist that in their most inspired moments they think not in words but in mental images. Samuel Taylor Coleridge wrote that visual images of scenes and words once appeared involuntarily before him in a dreamlike state (perhaps opium-induced). He managed to copy the first forty lines onto paper, resulting in the poem we know as “Kubla Khan”, before a knock on the door shattered the images and obliterated forever what would have been the rest of the poem. Many contemporary novelists, like Joan Didion, report that their acts of creation begin not with any notion of a character or a plot but with vivid mental pictures that dictate their choice of words. The modern sculptor James Surls plans his projects lying on a couch listening to music; he manipulates the sculptures in his mind’s eye, he says, putting an arm on, taking an arm off, watching the images roll and tumble. Physical scientists are even more adamant that their thinking is geometrical, not verbal. Michael Faraday, the originator of our modern conception of electric and magnetic fields, had no training in mathematics but arrived at his insights by visualizing lines of force as narrow tubes curving through space. James Clerk Maxwell formalized the concepts of electromagnetic fields in a set of mathematical equations and is considered the prime example of an abstract theoretician, but he set down the equations only after mentally playing with elaborate imaginary models of sheets and fluids. Nikola Tesla’s idea for the electrical motor and generator, Friedrich Kekule’s discovery of the benzene ring that kicked off modern organic chemistry, Ernest Lawrence’s conception of the cyclotron, James Watson and Francis Crick’s discovery of the DNA double helix – all came to them in images. The most famous self-described visual thinker is Albert Einstein, who arrived at some of his insights by imagining himself riding a beam of light and looking back at a clock, or dropping a coin while standing in a plummeting elevator. He wrote: �Содержание “The psychical entities which seem to serve as elements in thought are certain signs and more or less clear images which can be ‘voluntarily’ reproduced and combined. ... This combinatory play seems to be the essential feature in productive thought – before there is any connection with logical construction in words or other kinds of signs which can be communicated to others. The above-mentioned elements are, in my case, of visual and some muscular type. Conventional words or other signs have to be sought for laboriously only in a secondary state, when the mentioned associative play is sufficiently established and can be reproduced at will.” <…> What sense, then, can we make of the suggestion that images, numbers, kinship relations, or logic can be represented in the brain without being couched in words? In the first half of this century, philosophers had an answer: none. Reifying thoughts as things in the head was a logical error, they said. A picture or family tree or number in the head would require a little man, a homunculus, to look at it. And what would be inside his head – even smaller pictures, with an even smaller man looking at them? But the argument was unsound. It took Alan Turing, the brilliant British mathematician and philosopher, to make the idea of a mental representation scientifically respectable. Turing described a hypothetical machine that could be said to engage in reasoning. In fact this simple device, named a Turing Machine in his honor, is powerful enough to solve any problem that any computer, past, present, or future, can solve. And it clearly uses an internal symbolic representation – a kind of mentalese – without requiring a little man or any occult processes. By looking at how a Turing machine works, we can get a grasp of what it would mean for a human mind to think in mentalese as opposed to English. <…> We end up with the following picture. People do not think in English or Chinese or Apache; they think in a language of thought. This language of thought probably looks a bit like all these languages; presumably it has symbols for concepts, and arrangements of symbols that correspond to who did what to whom, as in the paint-spraying representation shown above. But compared with any given language, mentalese must be richer in some ways and simpler in others. It must be richer, for example, in that several concept symbols must correspond to a given English word like stool or stud. There must be extra paraphernalia that differentiate logically distinct kinds of concepts, like Ralph’s tusks versus tusks in general, and that link different symbols that refer to the same thing, like the tall blond man with one black shoe and the man. On the other hand, mentalese must be simpler than spoken languages; conversationspecific words and constructions (like a and the) are absent, and information about pronouncing words, or even ordering them, is unnecessary. Now, it could be that English speakers think in some kind of simplified and annotated quasi-English, with the design I have just described, and that Apache speakers think in a simplified and annotated quasi- Apache. But to get these languages of thought to subserve reasoning properly, they would have to look much more like each other than either one does to its spoken counterpart, and it is likely that they are the same: a universal mentalese. Knowing a language, then, is knowing how to translate mentalese into strings of words and vice versa. People without a language would still have mentalese, and babies and many nonhuman animals presumably have simpler dialects. Indeed, if babies did not have a mentalese to translate to and from English, it is not clear how learning English could take place, or even what �Содержание learning English would mean. So where does all this leave Newspeak? Here are my predictions for the year 2050. First, since mental life goes on independently of particular languages, concepts of freedom and equality will be thinkable even if they are nameless. Second, since there are far more concepts than there are words, and listeners must always charitably fill in what the speaker leaves unsaid, existing words will quickly gain new senses, perhaps even regain their original senses. Third, since children are not content to reproduce any old input from adults but create a complex grammar that can go beyond it, they would creolize Newspeak into a natural language, possibly in a single generation. The twenty-first-century toddler may be Winston Smith’s revenge. Questions and Tasks for the Analysis of the Text 1. Give a short summary of the chapter under analysis. What is the main idea discussed in the chapter? Comment on the title of the chapter. How is it related to the topic under discussion? How topical are the ideas discussed in the chapter? 2. Steven Pinker opens the chapter by a reference to the Newspeak introduced by George Orwell in his famous novel “1984”. And he returns to this reference in the end of the chapter which suggests that it carries out an important function in the text. What role does this reference play in the text? How is the concept NEWSPEAK related to the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis of linguistic determinism? What is the essence of this hypothesis? In discussing the hypothesis of linguistic determinism Steven Pinker resorts to the much-quoted passage from Benjamin Whorf. Does he quote Whorf to support his idea or to argue against it? What facts does Steven Pinker use to prove his point of view? How convincing do they sound? Comment on the manner of his argumentation. Does it sound emotion-free which is typical of scientific style or do you find it rather emotional? Prove your opinion by quoting the text. Find examples of language means that contribute to the tonality of the text (epithets, metaphors, intensifiers, rhetorical questions etc.). 3. Comment on the way he presents the central idea of the chapter – the existence of mentalese. What facts does he resort to make his idea very convincing and very understandable at the same time? Do you share his opinion or do you differ from the author? Give facts from your own linguistic experience to support your opinion. 4. Compare the style of Steven Pinker with that of Anna Wierzbicka. Do you find them similar or different? If you find them different point out the main points of difference. Many critics consider Steven Pinker’s books as examples of popular science. Though science and society are considered as two worlds lying far from each other, in order to bridge the gap, scientists write popular articles which strive to inform non-specialists about new scientific insights and discoveries. As Steven Pinker writes in the preface to his book his book is intended for a very wide audience: for language lovers, for readers of popular science, for students unaware of the science of language and mind and for professional colleagues scattered across many disciplines. Numerous manual for popular science writings give the following tips for the writers: a) structure your article well; b) use a catchy title; c) simplify the content; d) use the active voice; e) make sure that the contents and language of the popular article are suited to a wider circle of readers; f) use as few special terms as possible, and avoid excessively long sentences. Analyze the chapter from this angle to see if the characterization of Pinker’s writing �Содержание as popular science is true. 5. Summarize your observations for the final analysis of the text. Scientific Texts for Self-Guided Analysis Steven Pinker. The Language Instinct. How the Mind Creates language Geoffrey Leech. Semantics. The Study of Meaning Robin Lakoff. You Are What You Say �Содержание Scienti ic Texts for Self-Guided Analysis Steven Pinker. The Language Instinct. How the Mind Creates language Geoffrey Leech. Semantics. The Study of Meaning Robin Lakoff. You Are What You Say �Содержание Steven Pinker. The Language Instinct. How the Mind Creates language Chapter 5. Words, Words, Words (abridged) The word glamour comes from the word grammar, and since the Chomskyan revolution the etymology has been fitting. Who could not be dazzled by the creative power of the mental grammar, by its ability to convey an infinite number of thoughts with a finite set of rules? There has been a book on mind and matter called Grammatical Man, and a Nobel Prize lecture comparing the machinery of life to a generative grammar. Chomsky has been interviewed in Rolling Stone and alluded to on Saturday Night Live. In Woody Allen’s story “The Whore of Mensa,” the patron asks, “Suppose I wanted Noam Chomsky explained to me by two girls?” “It’d cost you,” she replies. Unlike the mental grammar, the mental dictionary has had no cachet. It seems like nothing more than a humdrum list of words, each transcribed into the head by dull-witted rote memorization. In the preface to his Dictionary, Samuel Johnson wrote: “It is the fate of those who dwell at the lower employments of life, to be rather driven by the fear of evil, than attracted by the prospect of good; to be exposed to censure, without hope of praise; to be disgraced by miscarriage, or punished for neglect, where success would have been without applause, and diligence without reward. Among these unhappy mortals is the writer of dictionaries. Johnson’s own dictionary defines lexicographer as “a harmless drudge, that busies himself in tracing the original, and detailing the signification of words”. In this chapter we will see that the stereotype is unfair. The world of words is just as wondrous as the world of syntax, or even more so. For not only are people as infinitely creative with words as they are with phrases and sentences, but memorizing individual words demands its own special virtuosity. Recall the uwg-test, passed by any preschooler: “Here is a wug. Now there are two of them. There are two”. Before being sochallenged, the child has neither heard anyone say, nor been rewarded for saying, the word wugs. Therefore words are not simply retrieved from a mental archive. People must have a mental rule for generating new words from old ones, something like “To form the plural of a noun, add the suffix -s” The engineering trick behind human language – its being a discrete combinatorial system – is used in at least two different places: sentences and phrases are built out of words by the rules of syntax, and the words themselves are built out of smaller bits by another set of rules, the rules of “morphology”. The creative powers of English morphology are pathetic compared to what we find in other languages. The English noun comes in exactly two forms (duck and ducks), the verb in four (quack, quacks, quacked, quacking). In modern Italian and Spanish every verb has about fifty forms; in classical Greek, three hundred and fifty; in Turkish, two million! Many of the languages I have brought up, such as Eskimo, Apache, Hopi, Kivunjo, and American Sign Language, are known for this prodigious ability. How do they do it? Here is an example from Kivunjo, the Bantu language that was said to make English look like checkers compared to chess. The verb “Naiklmlyiia”, meaning “He is eating it for her”, is composed of eight parts: �Содержание • N-: A marker indicating that the word is the “focus” of that point in the conversation. • -a-: A subject agreement marker. It identifies the eater as falling into Class 1 of the sixteen gender classes, “human singular”. (Remember that to a linguist “gender” means kind, not sex.) Other genders embrace nouns that pertain to several humans, thin or extended objects, objects that come in pairs or clusters, the pairs or clusters themselves, instruments, animals, body parts, diminutives (small or cute versions of things), abstract qualities, precise locations, and general locales. • Present tense. Other tenses in Bantu can refer to today, earlier today, yesterday, no earlier than yesterday, yesterday or earlier, in the remote past, habitually, ongoing, consecutively, hypothetically, in the future, at an indeterminate time, not yet, and sometimes. • -ki-: An object agreement marker, in this case indicating that the thing eaten falls into gender Class 7. • -m-: A benefactive marker, indicating for whose benefit the action is taking place, in this case a member of gender Class 1. • -lyi-: The verb, “to eat”. • -1-: An “applicative” marker, indicating that the verb’s cast of players has been augmented by one additional role, in this case the benefactive. (As an analogy, imagine that in English we had to add a suffix to the verb bake when it is used in 1 baked her a cake as opposed to the usual I baked a cake.) • -a : A final vowel, which can indicate indicative versus subjunctive mood. If you multiply out the number of possible combinations of the seven prefixes and suffixes, the product is about half a million, and that is the number of possible forms per verb in the language. In effect, Kivunjo and languages like it are building an entire sentence inside a single complex word, the verb. But I have been a bit unfair to English. English is genuinely crude in its “inflectional” morphology, where one modifies a word to fit the sentence, like marking a noun for the plural with -s or a verb for past tense with -ed. But English holds its own in “derivational” morphology, where one creates a new word out of an old one. For example, the suffix -able, as in learnable, teachable, and huggable, converts a verb meaning “to do X” into an adjective meaning “capable of having X done to it”. Most people are surprised to learn how many derivational suffixes there are in English. Here are the more common ones: -able -ate -ify -ize -age -ed -ion -ly -al -en -ish -ment �Содержание In addition, English is free and easy with “compounding”, which glues two words together to form a new one, like toothbrush and mouse-eater. Thanks to these processes, the number of possible words, even in morphologically impoverished English, is immense. The computational linguist Richard Sproat compiled all the distinct words used in the forty-four million words of text from Associated Press news stories beginning in mid-February 1988. Up through December 30, the list contained three hundred thousand distinct word forms, about as many as in a good unabridged dictionary. You might guess that this would exhaust the English words that would ever appear in such stories. But when Sproat looked at what came over the wire on December 31, he found no fewer than thirty-five new forms, including instrumenting, counterprograms, armhole, part-Vul- can, fuzzier, groveled, houlderlike, mega-lizard, traumatological, and ex-critters. Even more impressive, the output of one morphological rule can be the input to another, or to itself: one can talk about the unmicro-waveability of some French fries or a toothbrush-holder fastener box in which to keep one’s toothbrush-holder fasteners. This makes the number of possible words in a language bigger than immense; like the number of sentences, it is infinite. Putting aside fanciful coinages concocted for immortality in Guinness, a candidate for the longest word to date in English might be floccinaucinihilipilification, defined in the Oxford English Dictionary as “the categorizing of something as worthless or trivial”. But that is a record meant to be broken:floccinaucinihilipilificational. pertaining to the categorizing of something as worthless or trivial floccinaucinihilipilificationalize: to cause something to pertain to the categorizing of something as worthless or trivial floccinaucinihilipilificationalization: the act of causing something to pertain to the categorizing of something as worthless or trivial -an -er -ism -ness -ant -ful -ist -ory -ance -hood -ity -ous -ary -ive -y -ic floccinaucinihilipilificationalizationah pertaining to the act of causing something to pertain to the categorizing of something as worthless or trivial floccinaucinihilipilificationalizationalize\ to cause something to pertain to the act of causing something to pertain ... Or, if you suffer from sesquipedaliaphobia, you can think of your great-grandmother, your great-great-grandmother, your great-great- great-grandmother, and so on, limited only in practice by the number of generations since Eve. What’s more, words, like sentences, are too delicately layered to be generated by a chaining device (a system that selects an item from one list, then moves on to some other list, then to another). When Ronald Reagan proposed the Strategic Defense Initiative, popularly known as �Содержание Star Wars, he imagined a future in which an incoming Soviet missile would be shot down by an anti-missile missile. But critics pointed out that the Soviet Union could counterattack with an anti-anti-missile-missile missile. No problem, said his MIT-educated engineers; we’ll just build an anti-anti-anti-missile-missile-missile missile. These high-tech weapons need a high-tech grammar – something that can keep track of all the anti’s at the beginning of the word so that it can complete the word with an equal number of missile’s, plus one, at the end. A word structure grammar (a phrase structure grammar for words) that can embed a word in between an anti- and its missile can achieve these objectives; a chaining device cannot, because it has forgotten the pieces that it laid down at the beginning of the long word by the time it gets to the end. (TSsssS) Like syntax, morphology is a cleverly designed system, and many of the seeming oddities of words are predictable products of its internal logic. Words have a delicate anatomy consisting of pieces, called morphemes, that fit together in certain ways. The word structure system is an extension of the X-bar phase structure system, in which big nounish things are built out of smaller nounish things, smaller nounish things are built out of still smaller nounish things, and so on. The biggest phrase involving nouns is the noun phrase; a noun phrase contains an Nbar; an N-bar contains a noun – the word. Jumping from syntax to morphology, we simply continue the dissection, analyzing the word into smaller and smaller nounish pieces. <…> Our ability to appreciate a pattern inside a word, while knowing that the pattern is not the product of some potent rule, is the inspiration for a whole genre of wordplay. Self-conscious writers and speakers often extend Latinate root suffixes to new forms by analogy, such as religiosity, criticality, systematicity, randomicity, insipidify, calumniate, conciliate, stereotypy, disaffiliate, gallonage, and Shavian. The words have an air of heaviosity and seriosity about them, making the style an easy target for parody. A 1982 editorial cartoon by Jeff MacNelly put the following resignation speech into the mouth of Alexander Haig, the malaprop-prone Secretary of State: I decisioned the necessifaction of the resignatory action/option due to the dangerosity of the trendflowing of foreign policy away from our originatious careful coursing towards consistensivity, purposity, steadfastnitude, and above all, clarity. <…> A word, in a word, is complicated. But then what in the world is a word? We have just seen that “words” can be built out of parts by morphological rules. But then what makes them different from phrases or sentences? Shouldn’t we reserve the word “word” for a thing that has to be rote-memorized, the arbitrary Saussurean sign that exemplifies the first of the two principles of how language works (the other being the discrete combinatorial system)? The puzzlement comes from the fact that the everyday word “word” is not scientifically precise. It can refer to two things. The concept of a word that I have used so far in this chapter is a linguistic object that, even if built out of parts by the rules of morphology, behaves as the indivisible, smallest unit with �Содержание respect to the rules of syntax – a “syntactic atom”, in atom s original sense of something that cannot be split. The rules of syntax can look inside a sentence or phrase and cut and paste the smaller phrases inside it. For example, the rule for producing questions can look inside the sentence This monster eats mice and move the phrase corresponding to mice to the front, yielding What did this monster eat? But the rules of syntax halt at the boundary between a phrase and a word; even if the word is built out of parts, the rules cannot look “inside” the word and fiddle with those parts. For example, the question rule cannot look inside the word mice-eater in the sentence This monster is a mice-eater and move the morpheme corresponding to mice to the front; the resulting question is virtually unintelligible: What is this monster an eater? (Answer: mice.) Similarly, the rules of syntax can stick an adverb inside a phrase, as in This monster eats mice quickly. But they cannot stick an adverb inside a word, as in This monster is a mice-quickly- eater. For these reasons, we say that words, even if they are generated out of parts by one set of rules, are not the same thing as phrases, which are generated out of parts by a different set of rules. Thus one precise sense of our everyday term “word” refers to the units of language that are the products of morphological rules, and which are unsplittable by syntactic rules. The second, very different sense of “word” refers to a rote-memorized chunk: a string of linguistic stuff that is arbitrarily associated with a particular meaning, one item from the long list we call the mental dictionary. The grammarians Anna Maria Di Sciullo and Edwin Williams coined the term “listeme”, the unit of a memorized list, to refer to this sense of “word” (their term is a play on “morpheme”, the unit of morphology, and “phoneme”, the unit of sound). Note that a listeme need not coincide with the first precise sense of “word”, a syntactic atom. A listeme can be a tree branch of any size, as long as it cannot be produced mechanically by rules and therefore has to be memorized. Take idioms. There is no way to predict the meaning of kick the bucket, buy the farm, spill the beans, bite the bullet, screw the pooch, give up the ghost, hit the fan, or go bananas from the meanings of their components using the usual rules of heads and role- players. Kicking the bucket is not a kind of kicking, and buckets have nothing to do with it. The meanings of these phrase-sized units have to be memorized as listemes, just as if they were simple word-sized units, and so they are really “words” in this second sense. Di Sciullo and Williams, speaking as grammatical chauvinists, describe the mental dictionary (lexicon) as follows: “If conceived of as the set of listemes, the lexicon is incredibly boring by its very nature. ... The lexicon is like a prison – it contains only the lawless, and the only thing that its inmates have in common is their lawlessness”. In the rest of this chapter I turn to the second sense of “word”, the listeme. It will be a kind of prison reform: I want to show that the lexicon, though a repository of lawless listemes, is deserving of respect and appreciation. What seems to a grammarian like an act of brute force incarceration – a child hears a parent use a word and thenceforth retains that word in memory – is actually an inspiring feat. One extraordinary feature of the lexicon is the sheer capacity for memorization that goes into building it. How many words do you think an average person knows? If you are like most writers who have offered an opinion based on the number of words they hear or read, you �Содержание might guess a few hundred for the uneducated, a few thousand for the literate, and as many as 15,000 for gifted wordsmiths like Shakespeare (that is how many distinct words are found in his collected plays and sonnets). The real answer is very different. People can recognize vastly more words than they have occasion to use in some fixed period of time or space. To estimate the size of a person’s vocabulary – in the sense of memorized listemes, not morphological products, of course, because the latter are infinite – psychologists use the following method. Start with the largest unabridged dictionary available; the smaller the dictionary, the more words a person might know but not get credit for. Funk & Wagnal’s New Standard Unabridged Dictionary, to take an example, has 450,000 entries, a healthy number, but too many to test exhaustively. (At thirty seconds a word, eight hours a day, it would take more than a year to test a single person.) Instead, draw a sample – say, the third entry from the top of the first column on every eighth left-hand page. Entries often have many meanings, such as “hard: (1) firm; (2) difficult; (3) harsh; (4) toilsome ...” and so on, but counting them would require making arbitrary decisions about how to lump or split the meanings. Thus it is practical only to estimate how many words a person has learned at least one meaning for, not how many meanings a person has learned altogether. The testee is presented with each word in the sample, and asked to choose the closest synonym from a set of alternatives. After a correction for guessing, the proportion correct is multiplied by the size of the dictionary, and that is an estimate of the person’s vocabulary size. Actually, another correction must be applied first. Dictionaries are consumer products, not scientific instruments, and for advertising purposes their editors often inflate the number of entries. (“Authoritative. Comprehensive. Over 1.7 million words of text and 160,000 definitions. Includes a 16-page full-color atlas.”) They do it by including compounds and affixed forms whose meanings are predictable from the meanings of their roots and the rules of morphology, and thus are not true listemes. For example, my desk dictionary includes, together with sail, the derivatives sailplane, sailer, sailless, sailing-boat, and sailcloth, whose meanings I could deduce even if I had never heard them before. The most sophisticated estimate comes from the psychologists William Nagy and Richard Anderson. They began with a list of 227,553 different words. Of these, 45,453 were simple roots and stems. Of the remaining 182,100 derivatives and compounds, they estimated that all but 42,080 could be understood in context by someone who knew their components. Thus there were a total of 44,453 + 42,080 = 88,533 listeme words. By sampling from this list and testing the sample, Nagy and Anderson estimated that an average American high school graduate knows 45,000 words – three times as many as Shakespeare managed to use! Actually, this is an underestimate, because proper names, numbers, foreign words, acronyms, and many common undecomposable compounds were excluded. There is no need to follow the rules of Scrabble in estimating vocabulary size; these forms are all listemes, and a person should be given credit for them. If they had been included, the average high school graduate would probably be credited with something like 60,000 words (a tetrabard?), and superior students, because they read more, would probably merit a figure twice as high, an octobard. �Содержание Is 60,000 words a lot or a little? It helps to think of how quickly they must have been learned. Word learning generally begins around the age of twelve months. Therefore, high school graduates, who have been at it for about seventeen years, must have been learning an average of ten new words a day continuously since their first birthdays, or about a new word every ninety waking minutes. Using similar techniques, we can estimate that an average six-year-old commands about 13,000 words (notwithstanding those dull, dull Dick and Jane reading primers, which were based on ridiculously lowball estimates). A bit of arithmetic shows that preliterate children, who are limited to ambient speech, must be lexical vacuum cleaners, inhaling a new word every two waking hours, day in, day out. Remember that we are talking about listemes, each involving an arbitrary pairing. Think about having to memorize a new batting average or treaty date or phone number every ninety minutes of your waking life since you took your first steps. The brain seems to be reserving an especially capacious storage space and an especially rapid transcribing mechanism for the mental dictionary. Indeed, naturalistic studies by the psychologist Susan Carey have shown that if you casually slip a new color word like olive into a conversation with a three-year-old, the child will probably remember something about it five weeks later. Now think of what goes into each act of memorization. A word is the quintessential symbol. Its power comes from the fact that every member of a linguistic community uses it interchangeably in speaking and understanding. If you use a word, then as long as it is not too obscure I can take it for granted that if I later utter it to a third party, he will understand my use of it the same way I understood yours. I do not have to try the word back on you to see how you react, or test it out on every third party and see how they react, or wait for you to use it with third parties. This sounds more obvious than it is. After all, if I observe that a bear snarls before it attacks, I cannot expect to scare a mosquito by snarling at it; if I bang a pot and the bear flees, I cannot expect the bear to bang a pot to scare hunters. Even within our species, learning a word from another person is not just a case of imitating that person’s behavior. Actions are tied to particular kinds of actors and targets of the action in ways that words are not. If a girl learns to flirt by watching her older sister, she does not flirt with the sister or with their parents but only with the kind of person that she observes to be directly affected by the sister’s behavior. Words, in contrast, are a universal currency within a community. In order to learn to use a word upon merely hearing it used by others, babies must tacitly assume that a word is not merely a person’s characteristic behavior in affecting the behavior of others, but a shared bidirectional symbol, available to convert meaning to sound by any person when the person speaks, and sound to meaning by any person when the person listens, according to the same code. Since a word is a pure symbol, the relation between its sound and its meaning is utterly arbitrary. As Shakespeare (using a mere tenth of a percent of his written lexicon and a far tinier fraction of his mental one) put it, What’s in a name? that which we call a rose By any other name would smell as sweet. Because of that arbitrariness, there is no hope that mnemonic tricks might lighten the �Содержание memorization burden, at least for words that are not built out of other words. Babies should not, and apparently do not, expect cattle to mean something similar to battle, or singing to be like stinging, or coats to resemble goats. Onomatopoeia, where it is found, is of no help, because it is almost as conventional as any other word sound. In English, pigs go “oink”; in Japanese, they go “boo-boo”. Even in sign languages the mimetic abilities of the hands are put aside and their configurations are treated as arbitrary symbols. Residues of resemblance between a sign and its referent can occasionally be discerned, but like onomatopoeia they are so much in the eye or ear of the beholder that they are of little use in learning. In American Sign Language the sign for “tree” is a motion of a hand as if it was a branch waving in the wind; in Chinese Sign Language “tree” is indicated by the motion of sketching a tree trunk. The psychologist Laura Ann Petitto has a startling demonstration that the arbitrariness of the relation between a symbol and its meaning is deeply entrenched in the child’s mind. Shortly before they turn two, English-speaking children learn the pronouns you and me. Often they reverse them, using you to refer to themselves. The error is forgivable. You and me are “deictic” pronouns, whose referent shifts with the speaker: you refers to you when I use it but to me when you use it. So children may need some time to get that down. After all, Jessica hears her mother refer to her, Jessica, using you why should she not think that you means “Jessica”? Now, in ASL the sign for “me” is a point to one’s chest; the sign for “you” is a point to one’s partner. What could be more transparent? One would expect that using “you” and “me” in ASL would be as foolproof as knowing how to point, which all babies, deaf and hearing, do before their first birthday. But for the deaf children Petitto studied, pointing is not pointing. The children used the sign of pointing to their conversational partners to mean “me” at exactly the age at which hearing children use the spoken sound you to mean “me”. The children were treating the gesture as a pure linguistic symbol; the fact that it pointed somewhere did not register as being relevant. This attitude is appropriate in learning sign languages; in ASL, the pointing hand-shape is like a meaningless consonant or vowel, found as a component of many other signs, like “candy” and “ugly”. There is one more reason we should stand in awe of the simple act of learning a word. The logician W.V.O. Quine asks us to imagine a linguist studying a newly discovered tribe. A rabbit scurries by, and a native shouts, “Gavagai!” What does gavagai mean? Logically speaking, it needn’t be “rabbit”. It could refer to that particular rabbit (Flopsy, for example). It could mean any furry thing, any mammal, or any member of that species of rabbit (say, Oryctolagus cuniculus), or any member of that variety of that species (say, chinchilla rabbit). It could mean scurrying rabbit, scurrying thing, rabbit plus the ground it scurries upon, or scurrying in general. It could mean footprint-maker, or habitat for rabbit-fleas. It could mean the top half of a rabbit, or rabbit-meat-on-the-hoof, or possessor of at least one rabbit’s foot. It could mean anything that is either a rabbit or a Buick. It could mean collection of undetached rabbit parts, or “Lo! Rabbithood again!,” or “It rabbiteth”, analogous to “It raineth”. The problem is the same when the child is the linguist and the parents are the natives. Somehow a baby must intuit the correct meaning of a word and avoid the mind-boggling �Содержание number of logically impeccable alternatives. It is an example of a more general problem that Quine calls “the scandal of induction,” which applies .to scientists and children alike: how can they be so successful at observing a finite set of events and making some correct generalization about all future events of that sort, rejecting an infinite number of false generalizations that are also consistent with the original observations? We all get away with induction because we are not open-minded logicians but happily blinkered humans, innately constrained to make only certain kinds of guesses – the probably correct kinds – about how the world and its occupants work. Let’s say the word-learning baby has a brain that carves the world into discrete, bounded, cohesive objects and into the actions they undergo, and that the baby forms mental categories that lump together objects that are of the same kind. Let’s also say that babies are designed to expect a language to contain words for kinds of objects and words for kinds of actions – nouns and verbs, more or less. Then the undetached rabbit parts, rabbit-trod ground, intermittent rabbiting, and other accurate descriptions of the scene will, fortunately, not occur to them as possible meanings of gavagai. But could there really be a preordained harmony between the child’s mind and the parent’s? Many thinkers, from the woolliest mystics to the sharpest logicians, united only in their assault on common sense, have claimed that the distinction between an object and an action is not in the world or even in our minds, initially, but is imposed on us by our language’s distinction between nouns and verbs. And if it is the word that delineates the thing and the act, it cannot be the concepts of thing and act that allow for the learning of the word. I think common sense wins this one. In an important sense, there really are things and kinds of things and actions out there in the world, and our mind is designed to find them and to label them with words. That important sense is Darwin’s. It’s a jungle out there, and the organism designed to make successful predictions about what is going to happen next will leave behind more babies designed just like it. Slicing space-time into objects and actions is an eminently sensible way to make predictions given the way the world is put together. Conceiving of an extent of solid matter as a thing – that is, giving a single mentalese name to all of its parts – invites the prediction that those parts will continue to occupy some region of space and will move as a unit. And for many portions of the world, that prediction is correct. Look away, and the rabbit still exists; lift the rabbit by the scruff of the neck, and the rabbit’s foot and the rabbit ears come along for the ride. What about kinds of things, or categories? Isn’t it true that no two individuals are exactly alike? Yes, but they are not arbitrary collections of properties, either. Things that have long furry ears and tails like pom-poms also tend to eat carrots, scurry into burrows, and breed like, well, rabbits. Lumping objects into categories – giving them a category label in mentalese – allows one, when viewing an entity, to infer some of the properties one cannot directly observe, using the properties one can observe. If Flopsy has long furry ears, he is a “rabbit”; if he is a rabbit, he might scurry into a burrow and quickly make more rabbits. Moreover, it pays to give objects several labels in mentalese, designating different-sized categories like “cottontail rabbit”, “rabbit”, “mammal”, “animal”, and “living thing”. There is a tradeoff involved in choosing one category over another. It takes less effort to determine that �Содержание Peter Cottontail is an animal than that he is a cottontail (for example, an animallike motion will suffice for us to recognize that he is an animal, leaving it open whether or not he is a cottontail). But we can predict more new things about Peter if we know he is a cottontail than if we merely know he is an animal. If he is a cottontail, he likes carrots and inhabits open country or woodland clearings; if he is merely an animal, he could eat anything and live anywhere, for all one knows. The middle-sized or “basic-level” category “rabbit” represents a compromise between how easy it is to label something and how much good the label does you. Finally, why separate the rabbit from the scurry? Presumably because there are predictable consequences of rabbithood that cut across whether it is scurrying, eating, or sleeping: make a loud sound, and in all cases it will be down a hole lickety-split. The consequences of making a loud noise in the presence of lionhood, whether eating or sleeping, are predictably different, and that is a difference that makes a difference. Likewise, scurrying has certain consequences regardless of who is doing it; whether it be rabbit or lion, a scurrier does not remain in the same place for long. With sleeping, a silent approach will generally work to keep a sleeper – rabbit or lion – motionless. Therefore a powerful prognosticator should have separate sets of mental labels for kinds of objects and kinds of actions. That way, it does not have to learn separately what happens when a rabbit scurries, what happens when a lion scurries, what happens when a rabbit sleeps, what happens when a lion sleeps, what happens when a gazelle scurries, what happens when a gazelle sleeps, and on and on; knowing about rabbits and lions and gazelles in general, and scurrying and sleeping in general, will suffice. With m objects and n actions, a knower needn’t go through m x n learning experiences; it can get away with m + n of them. So even a wordless thinker does well to chop continuously flowing experience into things, kinds of things, and actions (not to mention places, paths, events, states, kinds of stuff, properties, and other types of concepts). Indeed, experimental studies of baby cognition have shown that infants have the concept of an object before they learn any words for objects, just as we would expect. Well before their first birthday, when first words appear, babies seem to keep track of the bits of stuff that we would call objects: they show surprise if the parts of an object suddenly go their own ways, of if the object magically appears or disappears, passes through another solid object, or hovers in the air without visible means of support. Attaching words to these concepts, of course, allows one to share one’s hard-won discoveries and insights about the world with the less experienced or the less observant. Figuring out which word to attach to which concept is the gavagai problem, and if infants start out with concepts corresponding to the kinds of meanings that languages use, the problem is partly solved. Laboratory studies confirm that young children assume that certain kinds of concepts get certain types of words, and other kinds of concepts cannot be the meaning of a word at all. The developmental psychologists Ellen Markman and Jeanne Hutchinson gave two- and threeyear-old children a set of pictures, and for each picture asked them to “find another one that is the same as this”. Children are intrigued by objects that interact, and when faced with these instructions they tend to select pictures that make groups of role-players like a blue jay and a nest or a dog and a bone. But when Markman and Hutchinson told them to “find another dax �Содержание that is the same as this dax” the children’s criterion shifted. A word must label a kind of thing, they seemed to be reasoning, so they put together a bird with another type of bird, a dog with another type of dog. For a child, a dax simply cannot mean “a dog or its bone”, interesting though the combination may be. Of course, more than one word can be applied to a thing: Peter Cottontail is not only a rabbit but an animal and a cottontail. Children have a bias to interpret nouns as middle-level kinds of objects like “rabbit”, but they also must overcome that bias, to learn other types of words like animal. Children seem to manage this by being in sync with a striking feature of language. Though most common words have many meanings, few meanings have more than one word. That is, homonyms are plentiful, synonyms rare. (Virtually all supposed synonyms have some difference in meaning, however small. For example, skinny and slim differ in their connotation of desirability; policeman and cop differ in formality.) No one really knows why languages are so stingy with words and profligate with meanings, but children seem to expect it (or perhaps it is this expectation that causes it!), and that helps them further with the gavagai problem. If a child already knows a word for a kind of thing, then when another word is used for it, he or she does not take the easy but wrong way and treat it as a synonym. Instead, the child tries out some other possible concept. For example, Markman found that if you show a child a pair of pewter tongs and call it biff, the child interprets biff as meaning tongs in general, showing the usual bias for middle-level objects, so when asked for “more biffs,” the child picks out a pair of plastic tongs. But if you show the child a pewter cup and call it biff\ the child does not interpret biff as meaning “cup,” because most children already know a word that means “cup,” namely, cup. Loathing synonyms, the children guess that biff must mean something else, and the stuff the cup is made of is the next most readily available concept. When asked for more biffs, the child chooses a pewter spoon or pewter tongs. Many other ingenious studies have shown how children home in on the correct meanings for different kinds of words. Once children know some syntax, they can use it to sort out different kinds of meaning. For example, the psychologist Roger Brown showed children a picture of hands kneading a mass of little squares in a bowl. If he asked them, “Can you see any sibbing? ,” the children pointed to the hands. If instead he asked them, “Can you see a sib?,” they point to the bowl. And if he asked, “Can you see any sib?,” they point to the stuff inside the bowl. Other experiments have uncovered great sophistication in children’s understanding of how classes of words fit into sentence structures and how they relate to concepts and kinds. So what’s in a name? The answer, we have seen, is, a great deal. In the sense of a morphological product, a name is an intricate structure, elegantly assembled by layers of rules and lawful even at its quirkiest. And in the sense of a listeme, a name is a pure symbol, part of a cast of thousands, rapidly acquired because of a harmony between the mind of the child, the mind of the adult, and the texture of reality. �Содержание Geoffrey Leech Geoffrey Neil Leech FBA (16 January 1936 – 19 August 2014) was a specialist in English language and linguistics. He was the author, co-author or editor of over 30 books and over 120 published papers. His main academic interests were English grammar, corpus linguistics, stylistics, pragmatics and semantics. from Semantics. The Study of Meaning (first published 1974) Chapter1. Meanings of Meaning Ogden and Richards and After The word “meaning” and its corresponding verb “to mean” are among the most eminently discussable terms in the English language, and sem- anticists have often seemed to spend an immoderate amount of time puzzling out the “meanings of meaning” as a supposedly necessary preliminary to the study of their subject. Perhaps the best-known book ever written on semantics, that which C.K. Ogden and I.A. Richards published in 1923, had the very title The Meaning of Meaning, and contained, on pp. 186-7, a list of as many as twenty-two definitions of the word, taking different non-theoretical or theoretical starting points. Here, for interest’s sake, is a selection of the meanings given: an intrinsic property the other words annexed to a word in the dictionary the connotation of a word the place of anything in a system the practical consequences of a thing in our future experience that to which the user of a symbol actually refers that to which the user of a symbol ought to be referring that to which the user of a symbol believes himself to be referring that to which the interpreter of a symbol (a) refers (b) believes himself to be referring (c) believes the user to be referring. Ogden and Richards, presenting this list, tried to show how confusion and misunderstanding come about because of lack of agreement about such basic terms as meaning. But they lodiked forward to a day when (as a result of the education of the public through their book and by other channels) “the Influence of Language upon Thought is understood, and the Phantoms due to linguistic misconception have been removed”; from here, the way would be open, they �Содержание felt, “to more fruitful methods of Interpretation and to an Art of Conversation by which the communicants can enjoy something more than the customary stones and scorpions”. The fascinating glimpse of a utopia of pure, polite conversation given us by Ogden and Richards is in part their own peculiar view of things, but other semanticists (notably those of the General Semantics movement inaugurated by Korzybski’s Science and Sanity in 1933) have also seen the solution of problems of meaning, thought, and communication as a potential cure-all for the ills of modern society. Other investigators have also, like Ogden and Richards, looked towards science for the clarification of semantic concepts. Ogden and Richards, in 1923, felt confident enough in the progress of science to assert: During the last few years advances in biology, and the psychological investigation of memory and heredity, have placed the “meaning” of signs in general beyond doubt, and it is here shown that thought and language are to be treated in the same manner, (p. 249) Ten years later, Bloomfield, in Language (1933), the most influential book on language to be published between the wars, similarly hitched semantics to the onward march of science, but with a slightly different emphasis. It was not the scientific study of mental phenomena (thought and symbolization) that he saw as providing the semanticist’s answers, but the scientific definition of everything to which language may refer: We can define the meaning of a speech-form accurately when this meaning has to do with some matter of which we possess scientific knowledge. We can define the names of minerals, for example, in terms of chemistry and mineralogy, as when we say that the ordinary meaning of the English word salt is “sodium chloride (NaCl)”, and we can define the names of plants or animals by means of the technical terms of botany or zoology, but we have no precise way of defining words like love or hate, which concern situations that have not been accurately classified – and these latter are in the great majority. (Language, p. 139) Bloomfield, then, was less sanguine about the wonders of science than Ogden and Richards. His conclusion, not surprisingly, sounded a pessimistic note, which turned out to be the virtual death-knell of semantics in the U.S.A. for the next twenty years: “The statement of meanings is therefore the weak point in language-study, and will remain so until human knowledge advances very far beyond its present state.” (p. 140). Taken to its logical terminus, Bloomfield’s argument implies a vision of an eventual period when everything would be capable of authoritative scientific definition, or in simpler words, when everything there was to be known would be known about everything – something even more illusory than Ogden’s and Richards’s idyll of a conversational paradise. Bloomfield was writing at a time when there was interest in the concept of “unified science” – that is, in the idea that all sciences, from physics to psychology, could be cemented together into one vast monolith of knowledge - but even allowing for this, his picture of the semanticist waiting patiently for the accumulation and solidification of the totality of human knowledge relies on what in hindsight is a naive view of the nature of science. Three flaws were latent in Bloomfield’s approach. Firstly, at any given time, there are usually competing scientific accounts of the same �Содержание phenomenon. Which of them do we choose for our definition? In the second place, science does not progress in the manner of a tub filling up with water – it progresses by a continuing process of revision and clarification, leading to greater clarity and depth of understanding. Since scientific statements are by nature provisional, it is difficult to foresee a time when everyone would be sufficiently confident that no further significant reformulations would be forthcoming to be able to start safely defining words like love and hate. Thirdly, a definition in terms of a scientific formula, such as salt = NaCl, simply exchanges one set of linguistic symbols for another, and so postpones the task of semantic explication one step further. Assuming that scientific language, like everyday language, has meaning, we are faced with the problem of defining the meaning of NaCP; and if we could replace this with a more precise or informative scientific formula, the same problem would arise with that, and so on ad infinitum. In other words, Bloomfield’s recipe for discovering meaning leads into a path of infinite regression; it turns out to be a dead end not only on practical but on logical grounds. The problems of Ogden’s and Richards’s and Bloomfield’s approaches to meaning arise mainly from the determination to explain semantics in terms of other scientific disciplines. One may argue that much of the apparent ambiguity of the term meaning, which bothered Ogden and Richards, has the same source. Certainly most of the twenty-two definitions given by them (as the examples on p. 1 above show) are the authors’ wording of technical definitions of philosophers, psychologists, philologists, literary critics, and other specialists; and much of the conflict between these definitions is explicable in terms of each specialist’s need or desire to tailor the study of meaning to the requirements of his own field. So a philosopher may define meaning, for his purposes, in terms of truth and falsehood; a behaviourist psychologist in terms of stimulus and response; a literary critic in terms of the reader’s response; and so on. Naturally enough, their definitions, springing from diverse frames of reference, will have little in common. While admitting that study in related fields could provide insight for the student of semantics, many people will wonder why semantics need be considered dependent, in this way, on extrinsic considerations. In fact, as soon as we start to treat semantics as deserving its own frame of reference instead of having to borrow one from elsewhere, we dispel many of the difficulties that have beset its development in the past fifty years. An autonomous discipline begins not with answers, but with questions. We might say that the whole point of setting up a theory of semantics is to provide a “definition” of meaning – that is, a systematic account of the nature of meaning. To demand a definition of meaning before we started discussing the subject would simply be to insist on treating certain other concepts, e.g. stimulus and response, as in some sense more basic and more important. A physicist does not have to define notions like “time”, “heat”, “colour”, “atom” before he starts investigating their properties. Rather, definitions, if they are needed, emerge from the study itself. Once this commonplace is accepted, the question of how to define meaning, which so preoccupied Ogden and Richards, is seen in its true colour as a red herring. �Содержание A Linguistic Starting Point for Semantics So far I have been trying to clear the ground, by arguing that the study of meaning should be free from subservience to other disciplines. This leads naturally to the challenge: “How then should meaning be studied? What sort of questions should we be trying to answer in setting up a theory of meaning? What principles should form its foundations?” One of the keynotes of a modern linguistic approach to semantics is that there is no escape from language: an equation such as cent – hundredth of a dollar or salt = NaCl is not a matching of a linguistic sign with something outside language; it is a correspondence between two linguistic expressions, supposedly having “the same meaning”. The search for an explanation of linguistic phenomena in terms of what is not language is as vain as the search for an exit from a room which has no doors or windows, for the word “explanation” itself implies a statement in language. Our remedy, then, is to be content with exploring what we have inside the room: to study relations within language, such as paraphrase or synonymy (both terms meaning roughly “sameness of meaning”). Paraphrase, and some other relations of meaning capable of systematic study, are illustrated below. Entailment and presupposition are types of meaning-dependence holding between one utterance and another; logical inconsistency is a type of semantic contrastiveness between utterances. 1. X: The defects of the plan were obvious is a paraphrase OF Y: The demerits of the scheme were evident. 2. X: The earth goes round the sun entails Y: The earth moves. 3. X: John’s son is called Marcus presupposes Y: John has a son. 4. X: The earth goes round the sun is inconsistent with Y: The earth is stationary. These are some of the relations of meaning between two utterances X and Y that a semantic theory may profitably try to explain; we shall look at these, and other, relations of meaning more carefully later on (pp. 73–82). A second principle underlying many present-day linguistic approaches to semantics is seeing the task of language study as the explication of the linguistic competence of the native speaker of a language; that is, the provision of rules and structures which specify the mental apparatus a person must possess if he is to “know” a given language. Applied to the semantic end of language, this leads to the question “What is it to know the meaning of a word, a sentence, etc.?” rather than just “What is meaning?”. And among the evidence for such knowledge one may include recognizing semantic relations such as 1–4 above. Another type of evidence that a person knows the semantics of a language is his recognition that certain utterances or expressions, although they obey the grammatical rules of the language �Содержание concerned, are “unsemantic” in the sense that they are aberrant or odd from the point of view of meaning. One such oddity isa tautology, ora statement which has to be true by virtue of its meaning alone, such as: Monday came before the day which followed it. We rarely have occasion to make such statements, because (except where we are explaining an unfamiliar linguistic usage) they tell a listener nothing that he did not know before, and so are communicatively empty. At the opposite side of acceptability are contradictions, or statements which are, by virtue of meaning, necessarily false: Everything I like I dislike. My brother had the toothache in his toe. These are more decidedly deviant than tautologies: they are not just informationally vacuous, but are downright nonsensical. Modern linguistics has concentrated, in defining what a given language is, on specifying which sentences are acceptable within that language, and which are not – that is, on marking the boundaries between what is possible and impossible within the rules of the language. This has naturally brought into focus the native speaker’s ability to discriminate between “grammatical” and “ungrammatical” sentences, and it is this ability in the area of meaning that we appeal to if we say that an ability to distinguish semantically odd sentences from meaningful sentences is a manifestation of his knowledge of rules of meaning in his language. Semantically odd or deviant sentences are not restricted to contradictions and tautologies. There are, for example, questions which logically permit only one answer (yes or no), and so do not need to be asked: Has your mother any sons or daughters? There are also sentences which are unanswerable, because they have absurd presuppositions: Do you know how the man who killed his widow was punished? This sort of whimsicality is a reminder of the “tangletalk” or nonsense rigmaroles which children indulge in*as a kind of verbal sport: I went to the pictures tomorrow I took a front seat at the back 1 fell from the pit to the gallery And broke a front bone in my back. A lady she gave me some chocolate, I ate it and gave it her back; I phoned for a taxi and walked it, And that’s why I never came back. (Opie, The Lore and Language of Schoolchildren, p. 25) The natural fascination children find in beating the bounds otmeaning- fulness might be counted among the symptoms of that “intuitive grasp” of meaning, or semantic competence as the linguist would call it, shared by the speakers of a language. Language and the “Real World” �Содержание But for the linguist, as for the philosopher, a crucial difficulty lies in drawing a boundary not simply between sense and nonsense, but between the kind of nonsense which arises from contradipting what we know about language and meaning, and the kind of nonsense which comes from contradicting what we know about the ‘real world’. If a speaker of English is asked to comment on the utterance (1) My uncle always sleeps standing on one toe he might exclaim: “But that can’t be true! No one can sleep like that!” His response would be similar to what he might say if faced with the contradiction (2) My uncle always sleeps awake. But on reflection, he would probably explain the two absurdities differently. Sentence (1) would be unbelievable because of what he knows about the world we live in, more specifically about the posture in which sleep is possible. Sentence (2) would be more than unbelievable – it would point to the unimaginable, because of the contradiction between the two meanings of sleep and awake. But both statements would strike him as absurd in the same way, to the extent that they would both be necessarily false. An analogy can be drawn here between the rules of a language and the rules of a game. Events within a football match, for instance, may be impossible (a) because they are against the rules of the game, or (b) because they violate natural laws regarding physical strength of human beings, the inability of footballs to defy ordinary laws of motion (e.g. by moving in the air like boomerangs), etc. Thus a football report that The centre-forward scored a goal by heading a ball from his own goal-line’ would be disbelieved as physically impossible, while The centreforward scored a goal by punching the ball into the goal-mouth’ would be disbelieved on the grounds that if such a thing happened, the game could not have been football. The difference felt between (1) and (2) above is brought out in the different strategies we adopt in trying to make sense of them. It seems to be an incontrovertible principle of semantics that the human mind abhors a vafcuum of sense; so a speaker of English faced with absurd sentences will strain his interpretative faculty to the utmost to read them meaningfully. For (1), My uncle always sleeps standing on one toe, two strategies of interpretation seem possible. The first is to assume a transfer of meaning by which either sleeps or standing on one toe is understood in a new or unusual sense. Standing on one toe, for instance, might be taken as a hyperbole or exaggerated substitute for “topsy-turvy”, or ‘in a weird posture’. The second strategy is to imagine some miraculous, unprecedented situation (e.g. the uncle’s having subjected himself to training in a hitherto unpractised version of yoga) in which this statement might be true. For (2) My uncle always sleeps awake, however, only the first strategy of transfer of meaning can be applied: the solution here must be to resolve the semantic conflict between “sleeping” and “waking” by (for example) understanding sleeps in a metaphorical way as “behaves as if asleep”. A factual absurdity can be made sensible by extending one’s imagination to the conception of a possible world (perhaps a dream world or fictional world) in which it could be true. A logical contradiction is on the other hand a linguistic absurdity, which, if it is to be made meaningful, requires a linguistic remedy, a “tampering with the rules of the language game”, just as the impossible manoeuvre described under (b) above would require a �Содержание rewriting of the rules of football. The distinction between language (including “logic”) on the one hand, and factual or “real world” knowledge on the other, will be explored further in Chapter 2 (pp. 12–13), and in Chapter 11 we shall also investigate the notion of transfer of meaning, and see in what sense it amounts to a “tampering with language”. At this stage, let us simply note that such a distinction is felt to exist, but that it is not easy for a linguist or a philosopher to justify it, or to prescribe how to draw a line in individual cases. Nevertheless, practical considerations, if no others, compel us to make such a distinction, for to do otherwise would be to enlarge the domain of semantics (as Bloomfield by implication enlarged it) into the impossibly vast study of everything that is to be known about the universe in which we live. We shall look at this distinction more critically in Chapter 5 (pp. 82–86). Summary In this chapter I have tried to make three main points about the study of meaning: 1. That it is mistaken to try to define meaning by reducing it to the terms of Sciences other than the science of language: e.g. to the terms of psychology or chemistry. 2. That meaning can best be studied as a linguistic phenomenon in its own right, not as something “outside language”. This means we investigate what it is to “know a language” semantically, e.g. to know what is involved in recognizing relations of meaning between sentences, and in recognizing which sentences are meaningful and which are not. 3. That point (2) rests on a distinction between “knowledge of language” and “knowledge of the ‘real world’ ”. �Содержание Robin Lakoff Robin Lakoff (born 1942) is a professor of linguistics at the University of California, Berkeley. She was educated at Radcliffe, the University of Indiana, and Harvard, and is the author of Language and Women’s Place (1975) and coauthor of Face Value: The Politics of Beauty (1984).The essay included here comes from the July 1974 issue of Ms magazine. You Are What You Say “Women’s language” is that pleasant (dainty?), euphemistic, never – aggressive way of talking we learned as little girls. Сultural bias was built into the language we were allowed to speak, the subjects we were allowed to speak about, and the ways we were spoken of. Having learned our linguistic lesson well, we go out in the world, only to discover that we are communicative cripples – damned if we do, and damned if we don’t. If we refuse to talk “like a lady”, we are ridiculed and criticized for being unfeminine. (“She thinks like a man” is, at best, a left – handed compliment.) If we do learn all the fuzzy-headed, unassertive language of our sex, we are ridiculed for being unable to think clearly, unable to take part in a serious discussion, and therefore unfit to hold a position of power. It doesn’t take much of this for a woman to begin feeling she deserves such treatment because of inadequacies in her own intelligence and education. “Women’s language” shows up in all levels of English. For example, women are encouraged and allowed to make far more precise discriminations in naming colors than men do. Words like mauve, beige, ecru, aquamarine, lavender, and so on, are unremarkable in a woman’s active vocabulary, but largely absent from that of most men. I know of no evidence suggesting that women actually see a wider range of colors than men do. It is simply that fine discriminations of this sort are relevant to women’s vocabularies, but not to men’s; to men, who control most of the interesting affairs of the world, such distinctions are trivial-irrelevant. In the area of syntax, we find similar gender-related peculiarities of speech. There is one construction, in particular, that women use conversationally far more than men: the tagquestion. A tag is midway between an outright statement and a yes-no question; it is less assertive than the former, but more confident than the latter. A flat statement indicates confidence in the speaker’s knowledge and is fairly certain to be believed; a question indicates a lack of knowledge on some point and implies that the gap in the speaker’s knowledge can and will be remedied by an answer. For example, if, at a Little League game, I have had my glasses off, I can legitimately ask someone else: “Was the player out at third?” A tag question, being intermediate between statement and question, is used when the speaker is stating a claim, but lacks full confidence in the truth of that claim. So if I say, “Is Joan here?” I will probably not be surprised if my respondent answers “no”; but if I say, “Joan is here, isn’t she?” instead, chances are I am already biased in favor of a positive answer, wanting only confirmation. I still want a response, but I have enough knowledge (or think I have) to predict that response. A tag question, then, might be thought of as a statement that doesn’t demand to be believed by anyone but the speaker, a way of giving leeway, of not �Содержание forcing the addressee to go along with the views of the speaker. Another common use of the tag-question is in small talk when the speaker is trying to elicit conversation: “Sure is hot here, isn’t it?” But in discussing personal feelings or opinions, only the speaker normally has any way of knowing the correct answer. Sentences such as “I have a headache, don’t I?” are clearly ridiculous. But there are other examples where it is the speaker’s opinions, rather than perceptions, for which corroboration is sought, as in “The situation in Southeast Asia is terrible, isn’t it?” While there are, of course, other possible interpretations of a sentence like this, one possibility is that the speaker has a particular answer in mind – “yes” or “no” – but is reluctant to state it baldly. This sort of tag question is much more apt to be used by women than by men in conversation. Why is this the case? The tag question allows a speaker to avoid commitment, and thereby avoid conflict with the addressee. The problem is that, by so doing, speakers may also give the impression of not really being sure of themselves, or looking to the addressee for confirmation of their views. This uncertainly is reinforced in more subliminal ways, too. There is a peculiar sentence intonation – pattern, used almost exclusively by women, as far as I know, which changes a declarative answer into a question. The effect of using the rising inflection typical of a yes – no question is to imply that the speaker is seeking confirmation, even though the speaker is clearly the only one who has the requisite information, which is why the question was put to her in the first place: (Q) When will dinner be ready? (A) Oh … around six o’clock…? It is as though the second speaker were saying, “Six o’clock – if that’s okay with you, if you agree.” The person being addressed is put in the position of having to provide confirmation. One likely consequence of this sort of speech – pattern in a woman is that, often unbeknownst to herself, the speaker builds a reputation of tentativeness, and others will refrain from taking her seriously or trusting her with any real responsibilities, since she “can’t make up her mind,” and “isn’t sure of herself.” Such idiosyncrasies may explain why women’s language sounds much more “polite” than men’s. It is polite to leave a decision open, not impose your mind, or views, or claims, on anyone else. So a tag-question is a kind of polite statement, in that it does not force agreement or belief on the addressee. In the same way a request is a polite command, in that it does not force obedience on the addressee, but rather suggests something be done as a favor to the speaker. A clearly stated order implies a threat of certain consequences if it is not followed, and – and more impolite – implies that the speaker is in a superior position and able to enforce the order. By couching wishes in the form of a request, on the other hand, a speaker implies that if the request is not carried out, only the speaker will suffer; noncompliance cannot harm the addressee. So the decision is really left up to addressee. The distinction becomes clear in �Содержание these examples: Close the door. Please close the door. Will you close the door? Will you please close the door? Won’t you close the door? In the same ways as words and speech patterns used by women undermine her image, those used to describe women make matters even worse. Often a word may be used of both men and women (and perhaps of things as well); but when it is applied to women, it assumes a special meaning that, by implication rather than outright assertion, is derogatory to women as a group. The use of euphemisms has this effect. A euphemism is a substitute for a word that has acquired a bad connotation by association with something unpleasant or embarrassing. But almost as soon as the new word comes into common usage, it takes on the same old bad connotations, since feelings about the things or people referred to are not altered by a change of name; thus new euphemisms must be constantly found. There is one euphemism for woman still very much alive. The word, of course, is lady. Lady has a masculine counterpart, namely gentleman, occasionally shortened to gent. But for some reason lady is very much commoner than gent (leman). The decision to use lady rather than woman, or vice versa, may considerably alter the sense of a sentence, as the following examples show: (a) A woman (lady) I know is a dean at Berkeley. (b) A woman (lady) I know makes amazing things out of shoelaces and old boxes. The use of lady in (a) imparts a frivolous, or nonserious, tone to the sentence: the matter under discussion is not one of great moment. Similarly, in (b), using lady here would suggest that the speaker considered the “amazing things” not to be serious art, but merely a hobby or an aberration. If woman is used, she might be a serious sculptor. To say lady doctor is very condescending, since no one ever says gentleman doctor or even man doctor. For example, mention in the San Francisco Chronicle of January 31, 1972, of Madalyn Murray O’Hair as the lady atheist reduces her position to that of scatterbrained eccentric. Even woman atheist is scarcely defensible: sex is irrelevant to her philosophical position. Many women argue that, on the other hand, lady carries with it overtones recalling the age of chivalry: conferring exalted stature on the person so referred to. This makes the term seem polite at first, but we must also remember that these implications are perilous: they suggest that a “lady” is helpless, and cannot do things by herself. Lady can also be used to infer frivolousness, as in titles of organizations. Those that have a �Содержание serious purpose (not merely that of enabling “the ladies” to spend time with one another) cannot use the word lady in their titles, but less serious ones may. Compare the Ladies’ Auxiliary of a men’s group, or the Thursday Evening Ladies’ Browning and Garden Society with Ladies’ Liberation or Ladies’ Strike for Peace. What is curious about this split is that lady is in origin a euphemism – a substitute that puts a better face on something people find uncomfortable – for woman. What kind of euphemism is it that subtly denigrates the people to whom it refers? Perhaps lady functions as a euphemism for woman because it does not contain the sexual implications present in woman: it is not “embarrassing” in that way. If this is so, we may expect that, in the future, lady will replace woman as the primary word for the human female, since woman will have become too blatantly sexual. That this distinction is already made in some contexts at least is shown in the following examples, where you can try replacing woman with lady: (a) She’s only twelve, but she’s already a woman. (b) After ten years in jail, Harry wanted to find a woman. (c) She’s my woman, see, so don’t mess around with her. Another common substitute for woman is girl. One seldom hears a man past the age of adolescence referred to as a boy, save in expressions like “going out with the boys”, which are meant to suggest an air of adolescent frivolity and irresponsibility. But women of all ages are “girls”: one can have a man – not a boy – Friday, but only a girl – never a woman or even a lady – Friday; women have girlfriends, but men do not – in a nonsexual sense – have boyfriends. It may be that this use of girl is euphemistic in the same way the use of lady is: in stressing the idea of immaturity, it removes the sexual connotations lurking in woman. Girl brings to mind irresponsibility: you don’t send a girl to do a woman’s errand (or even, for that matter, a boy’s errand). She is a person who is both too immature and too far from real life to be entrusted with responsibilities or with decisions of any serious or important nature. Now let’s take a pair of words which, in terms of the possible relationships in an earlier society, were simple male-female equivalents, analogous to bull: cow. Suppose we find that, for independent reasons, society has changed in such a way that the original meanings now are irrelevant. Yet the words have not been discarded, but have acquired new meanings, metaphorically related to their original senses. But suppose these new metaphorical uses are no longer parallel to each other. By seeing where the parallelism breaks down, we discover something about the different roles played by men and women in this culture. One good example of such a divergence through time is found in the pair, master: mistress. Once used with reference to one’s power over servants, these words have become unusable today in their original master-servant sense as the relationship has become less prevalent in our society. But the words are still common. Unless used with reference to animals, master now generally refers to a man who has acquired consummate ability in some field, normally nonsexual. But its feminine counterpart cannot be used this way. It is practically restricted to its sexual sense of “paramour”. We start out with two terms, both roughly paraphrasable as “one who has power over another”. But the �Содержание masculine form, once one person is no longer able to have absolute power over another, becomes usable metaphorically in the sense of “having power over something”. Master requires as its object only the name of some activity, something inanimate and abstract. But mistress requires a masculine noun in the possessive to precede it. One cannot say: “Rhonda is a mistress”. One must be someone’s mistress. A man is defined by what he does, a woman by her sexuality, that is, in terms of one particular aspect of her relationship to men. It is one thing to be an old master like Hans Holbein, and another to be an old mistress. The same is true of the words spinster and bachelor – gender words for “one who is not married”. The resemblance ends with the definition. While bachelor is a neuter term, often used as a compliment, spinster normally is used pejoratively, with connotations of prissiness, fussiness, and so on. To be a bachelor implies that one has the choice of marrying or not, and this is what makes the idea of a bachelor existence attractive, in the popular literature. He has been pursued and has successfully eluded his pursuers. But a spinster is one who has not been pursued, or at least not seriously. She is old, unwanted goods. The metaphorical connotations of bachelor generally suggest sexual freedom; of spinster, puritanism or celibacy. These examples could be multiplied. It is generally considered a faux pas, in society, in society, to congratulate a woman on her engagement, while it is correct to congratulate her fiancé. Why is this? The reason seems to be that is impolite to remind people of things that may be uncomfortable to them. To congratulate a woman on her engagement is really to say, “Thank goodness! You had a close call!” For the man, on the other hand, there was no such danger. His choosing to marry is viewed as a good thing, but not something essential. The linguistic double standard holds throughout the life of the relationship. After marriage, bachelor and spinster become man and wife, not man and woman. The woman whose husband dies remains “John’s widow”; John, however, is never “Mary’s widower”. Finally, why is it that salesclerks and others are so quick to call women customers “dear,” “honey”, and other terms of endearment they really have no business using? A male customer would never put up with it. But women, like children, are supposed to enjoy these endearments, rather than being offended by them. In more ways than one, it’s time to speak up. �Содержание PART IV. THE LANGUAGE OF FICTION: A SHORT STORY The Art of Reading and Analysing a Story James Joyce. Eveline Oscar Wilde. The Model Millionaire Katherine Mansfield. A Cup of Tea Somerset Maugham. The Happy Man O. Henry. The Cop and the Anthem Ernest Hemingway. Cat in the Rain Stories for Self-Guided Analysis Katherine Mansfield. Honeymoon Kate Chopin. The Story of an Hour Ray Bradbury. In a Season of Calm Weather Peter Mayle. The Genetic Effects of Two Thousand Years of Foie Gras �Содержание The Art of Reading and Analysing a Story We enjoy stories for many reasons. Some are intrinsic to the story itself: language artfully used, characters we believe in and care about, actions that carry significant messages for us and give us new insights into ourselves and our society. Other causes of enjoyment are external, coming not from the artistry of the story, but from the fact that the story fits our notions of what a story should be like, or calls forth some pleasant personal memories. In short, the external factors for our response to a story come from things we already think or feel. Intrinsic factors come from the writer’s craftsmanshift and art. When we read for pleasure alone, we need not care where our pleasure comes from. When we study literature or learn to interpret texts, we should concentrate on the intrinsic qualities of stories, on the “how” aspects of a story, for they can help us to understand the craft of the writer. To understand the craft we must look closely at such aspects of a story as: the plot, the structure, the type of narrator, the ways of conveying the message, means of character portrayal, individual means that constiture a writer’s individual style etc. Now let’s repeat the question we have already asked: what steps should we take when thinking about a story in order to discuss and interpret it in class? STEP I. Give the gist of the story (in 10 sentences or so). Present in a very succinct and precise form the plot of the story, pointing out its main characters, the place and the time of action, and the events presented in the story. Give a short characteristic of the plot. This step is really important because it helps us to make our speech succinct and precise. STEP II. Share your initial impression. The first thing to do is to jot down whatever things about the story strike you as being most noticeable – the ideas that affect you most strongly. STEP III. Consider the structure of the story. The same events that serve as the plot of a story can be arranged differently and the ordering of events constitute the structure, or the composition of a story. Traditionally a story’s structure is said to include four basic parts: 1. The exposition. The beginning of the story, which introduces the reader to the setting (time and place) and to some, or all the characters. 2. The conflict. Every story centers on a conflict of some sort: one person or a group of people, against another; an individual against some rule or custom of society. Generally the conflict increases in tension or in complexity until it reaches a climax. 3. The climax. The point of greatest tension, at which the turning point or the breaking point is reached. 4. The denouement, or resolution. The ending, which brings the narration to a close, picking up the pieces of the action and reordering the lives left disordered by the conflict and the climax. �Содержание Of these four parts of the structure, only the conflict and the climax are essential. Not all writers begin their stories with an exposition, sometimes the first sentence can show the characters already embroiled in their conflict. The resolution may also be not presented in the story. Thus stories may have a closed- or an open-end structure. A story with an open end structure invites the reader to be more active and think of a possible resolution of the conflict. Sometimes the ending is predictable, or logically expected, but very often stories have an unexpected, or “surprise ending”, thus creating a defeated expectancy effect, which is a characteristic feature of O. Henry’s style. STEP IV. Consider the major aspects of the story. In the introduction we suggested that each work of fiction involves the following key elements: action, or plot; character; setting; and language, or voice. Fiction is the art of the storyteller. Not only are writers of fiction storytellers themselves, but within every story they create a new storyteller. It is the narrator’s voice that we hear while reading a novel or a story. Traditionally stories are told by omniscient narrators. As the term implies these narrators “know all” about the characters and events of which they tell. Somewhat distanced by their greater knowledge from action and actors alike, omniscient narrators produce an air of authority over their material. They seem to stand somewhat apart from the events. Having no role in the action themselves they can interpret the events and characters somewhat impartially. First-person narrators or I-narrators appear to be participants of their own stories. They are telling us something that happened to them and are telling their tale from their own point of view. They cannot see into the minds of the other characters. In contrast to the total knowledge of the omniscient narrator, the first-person narrator’s powers of interpretation may be slight. As the narrator’s knowledge diminishes, the reader’s role increases. If we cannot trust the narrator as the omniscient, final authority, the role of our role judgement increases. We often feel closer to first-person narrators that to omniscient narrators. The limitation of human knowledge and insight within which the first-person narrators work, the blend of attempted objectivity and personal involvement their voices convey, and their apparent openness in telling their own stories appeal to our sympathy and our sense of fellowship. In telling us of their dreams and desires first-person narrators speak eloquently of human aspirations; in confessing their shortcomings they speak no less eloquently of human limitations. A characteristic feature of the XXth century literature is the so-called disguised first-person narration, when the story is told in the third-person, yet from the mode of presentation we understand that it is not the omniscient third-person narrator, but a personal Inarrator. When the writer delegates the narration not to one, but several characters, it results in a polyphony which is another typical feature of modern literature. This type of narration plays an important role in portraying characters. �Содержание Talking about the characters we must direct our attention to the author’s means of portraying them. They may be portrayed directly, or through their actions and speech, especially inner speech. Special attention should be paid to small details which may matter a lot for portraying a character and conveying a meaning. Discussing the language of an author we should pay utmost attention to the means which constitute the author’s idiostyle and by which we can tell one author from another. Some authors favour metaphors and similes (V. Woolf, K. Mansfield), others use metonymies more frequently (O. Henry), still others are fond of paradoxes and puns (O. Wilde). There are authors who use figures of speech very sparingly, whose prose is crystal-clear (E. Hemingway), which makes it no less expressive in effect. STEP V. Create a synthesis. At this stage summarize your own observations, add what you think important from the discussion you had in class and prepare the final analysis of the story. �Содержание James Joyce (1882–1941) James Augustine Aloysius Joyce (1882–1941) was an Irish novelist and poet, considered to be one of the most influential writers in the modernist avant-garde of the early 20th century. Joyce is best known for Ulysses (1922), a landmark novel which perfected his stream of consciousness technique and combined nearly every literary device available in a modern re-telling of The Odyssey. Other major works are the short-story collection Dubliners (1914), and the novels A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (1916) and Finnegans Wake (1939). His complete oeuvre includes three books of poetry, a play, occasional journalism, and his published letters. Joyce was born into a middle class family in Dublin, where he excelled as a student at the Jesuit schools Clongowes and Belvedere, then at University College Dublin. In his early twenties he emigrated permanently to continental Europe, living in Trieste, Paris and Zurich. Though most of his adult life was spent abroad, Joyce’s fictional universe does not extend beyond Dublin, and is populated largely by characters who closely resemble family members, enemies and friends from his time there. James Joyce had begun his education at Clongowes Wood College, a Jesuit boarding school near Clane, County Kildare, in 1888 but had to leave in 1892 when his father could no longer pay the fees. Joyce then studied at home and briefly at the Christian Brothers school on North Richmond Street, Dublin, before he was offered a place in the Jesuits’, Dublin school, Belvedere College, in 1893. By the age of 16, however, Joyce appears to have made a break with his Catholic roots, even though the philosophy of Thomas Aquinas continued to have a strong influence on him for most of his life. He enrolled at the recently established University College Dublin (UCD) in 1898, studying English, French, and Italian. After graduating from UCD in 1903, Joyce left for Paris to study medicine, but he soon abandoned this after finding the technical lectures in French too difficult. The same year he met Nora Barnacle, a young woman from Connemara, County Galway who was working as a chambermaid. On 16 June 1904, they first stepped out together, an event which would be commemorated by providing the date for the action of Ulysses. Joyce and Nora went into self-imposed exile, moving first to Zurich, where he had supposedly acquired a post to teach English at the Berlitz Language School through an agent in England. It turned out that the English agent had been swindled, but the director of the school sent him on to Trieste, which was part of Austria-Hungary until World War I . Once again, he found there was no position for him, but he finally secured a teaching position in Pola, then also part of Austria-Hungary. He stayed there, teaching English mainly to Austro-Hungarian naval officers stationed at the Pola base, when the Austrians – �Содержание having discovered an espionage ring in the city – expelled all aliens. He moved back to Trieste and began teaching English there. He would remain in Trieste for most of the next ten years. In 1915, after most of his students were conscripted in Trieste for World War I, he moved to Zurich. While in Zurich he wrote Exiles, published A Portrait..., and began serious work on Ulysses. Joyce set himself to finally finishing Ulysses in Paris, delighted to find that he was gradually gaining fame as an avant-garde writer. With the appearance of both Ulysses and T.S. Eliot’s poem, The Waste Land, 1922 was a key year in the history of English-language literary modernism. In Ulysses, Joyce employs stream of consciousness, parody, jokes, and virtually every other established literary technique to present his characters. The action of the novel, which takes place in a single day, 16 June 1904, sets the characters and incidents of the Odyssey of Homer in modern Dublin and represents Odysseus (Ulysses), Penelope and Telemachus in the characters of Leopold Bloom, his wife Molly Bloom and Stephen Dedalus, parodically contrasted with their lofty models. The book consists of 18 chapters, each covering roughly one hour of the day, beginning around 8 a.m. and ending some time after 2 a.m. the following morning. Each chapter employs its own literary style, and parodies a specific episode in Homer’s Odyssey. Furthermore, each chapter is associated with a specific colour, art or science, and bodily organ. This combination of kaleidoscopic writing with an extreme formal schematic structure renders the book a major contribution to the development of 20th-century modernist literature. The use of classical mythology as an organising framework, the near-obsessive focus on external detail, and the occurrence of significant action within the minds of characters have also contributed to the development of literary modernism. Joyce’s method of stream of consciousness, literary allusions and free dream associations was pushed to the limit in Finnegans Wake, which abandoned all conventions of plot and character construction and is written in a peculiar and obscure language, based mainly on complex multi-level puns. This approach is similar to, but far more extensive than that used by Lewis Carroll in Jabberwocky. This has led many readers and critics to apply Joyce’s oftquoted description in the Wake of Ulysses as his “usylessly unreadable Blue Book of Eccles” to the Wake itself. However, readers have been able to reach a consensus about the central cast of characters and general plot. On 11 January 1941, he underwent surgery for a perforated ulcer and died two days later. He is buried in the Fluntern Cemetery within earshot of the lions in the Zurich Zoo. The work and life of Joyce is celebrated annually on 16 June, Bloomsday, in Dublin and in an increasing number of cities worldwide. His influence on the world literature is great. Eveline She sat at the window watching the evening invade the avenue. Her head was leaned against the window curtains and in her nostrils was the odour of dusty cretonne. She was tired. Few people passed. The man out of the last house passed on his way home; she heard his footsteps clacking along the concrete pavement and afterwards crunching on the cinder path before the new red houses. One time there used to be a field there in which they used to play every evening with other people’s children. Then a man from Belfast bought the field and built �Содержание houses in it – not like their little brown houses but bright brick houses with shining roofs. The children of the avenue used to play together in that field – the Devines, the Waters, the Dunns, little Keogh the cripple, she and her brothers and sisters. Ernest, however, never played: he was too grown up. Her father used often to hunt them in out of the field with his blackthorn stick; but usually little Keogh used to keep nix and call out when he saw her father coming. Still they seemed to have been rather happy then. Her father was not so bad then; and besides, her mother was alive. That was a long time ago; she and her brothers and sisters were all grown up; her mother was dead. Tizzie Dunn was dead, too, and the Waters had gone to England. Everything changes. Now she was going to go away like the others, to leave her home. Home! She looked round the room, reviewing all its familiar objects which she had dusted once a week for so many years, wondering where on earth all the dust came from. Perhaps she would never see again those familiar objects from which she had never dreamed of being divided. And yet during all those years she had never found out the name of the priest whose yellowing photograph hung on the wall above the broken harmonium beside the coloured print of the promises made to Blessed Margaret Mary Alacoque. He had been a school friend of her father. Whenever he show. “He is in Melbourne now.” She had consented to go away, to leave her home. Was that wise? She tried to weigh each side of the question. In her home anyway she had shelter and food; she had those whom she had known all her life about her. Of course she had to work hard, both in the house and at business. What would they say of her in the Stores when they found out that she had run away with a fellow? Say she was a fool, perhaps; and her place would be filled up by advertisement. Miss Gavan would be glad she had always had an edge on her, especially whenever there were people listening. “Miss Hill, don’t you see these ladies are waiting? ” “Look lively, Miss Hill, please. ” She would not cry many tears at leaving the Stores. But in her new home, in a distant unknown country, it would not be like that. Then she would be married – she, Eveline. People would treat her with respect then. She would not be treated as her mother had been. Even now, though she was over nineteen, she sometimes felt herself in danger of her father’s violence. She knew it was that that had given her the palpitations. When they were growing up he had never gone for her, like he used to go for Harry and Ernest, because she was a girl; but latterly he had begun to threaten her and say what he would do to her only for her dead mother’s sake. And now she had nobody to protect her. Ernest was dead and Harry, who was in the church decorating business, was nearly always down somewhere in the country. Besides, the invariable squabble for money on Saturday nights had begun to weary her unspeakably. She always gave her entire wages – seven shillings – and Harry always sent up what he could but the trouble was to get any money from her father. He said she used to squander the money, that she had no head, that he wasn’t going to give her his hard-earned money to throw about the streets, and much more, for he was usually fairly bad on Saturday night. In the end he would give her the money and ask her had she any intention of buying Sunday’s dinner. Then she had to rush out as quickly as she could and do her marketing, holding her black leather purse tightly in her hand as she elbowed her way through �Содержание the crowds and returning home late under her load of provisions. She had hard work to keep the house together and to see that the two young children who had been left to her charge went to school regularly and got their meals regularly. It was hard work – a hard life – but now that she was about to leave it she did not find it a wholly undesirable life. She was about to explore another life with Frank. Frank was very kind, manly, open-hearted. She was to go away with him by the night-boat to be his wife and to live with him in Buenos Aires where he had a home waiting for her. How well she remembered the first time she had seen him; he was lodging in a house on the main road where she used to visit. It seemed a few weeks ago. He was standing at the gate, his peaked cap pushed back on his head and his hair tumbled forward over a face of bronze. Then they had come to know each other. He used to meet her outside the Stores every evening and see her home. He took her to see The Bohemian Girl and she felt elated as she sat in an unaccustomed part of the theatre with him. He was awfully fond of music and sang a little. People knew that they were courting and, when he sang about the lass that loves a sailor, she always felt pleasantly confused. He used to call her Poppens out of fun. First of all it had been an excitement for her to have a fellow and then she had begun to like him. He had tales of distant countries. He had started as a deck boy at a pound a month on a ship of the Allan Line going out to Canada. He told her the names of the ships he had been on and the names of the different services. He had sailed through the Straits of Magellan and he told her stories of the terrible Patagonians. He had fallen on his feet in Buenos Aires, he said, and had come over to the old country just for a holiday. Of course, her father had found out the affair and had forbidden her to have anything to say to him. “I know these sailor chaps,” he said. One day he had quarreled with Frank and after that she had to meet her lover secretly. The evening deepened in the avenue. The white of two letters in her lap grew indistinct. One was to Harry; the other was to her father. Ernest had been her favourite but she liked Harry too. Her father was becoming old lately, she noticed; he would miss her. Sometimes he could be very nice. Not long before, when she had been laid up for a day, he had read her out a ghost story and made toast for her at the fire. Another day, when their mother was alive, they had all gone for a picnic to the Hill of Howth. She remembered her father putting on her mother’s bonnet to make the children laugh. Her time was running out but she continued to sit by the window, leaning her head against the window curtain, inhaling the odour of dusty, cretonne. Down far in the avenue she could hear a street organ playing. She knew the air. Strange that it should come that very night to remind her of the promise to her mother, her promise to keep the home together as long as she could. She remembered the last night of her mother’s illness; she was again in the close dark room at the other side of the hall and outside she heard a melancholy air of Italy. The organ-player had been ordered to go away and given sixpence. She remembered her farther strutting back into the sickroom saying: “Damned Italians! Coming over here!” As she mused the pitiful vision of her mother’s life laid its spell on the very quick of her being – that life of commonplace sacrifices closing in final craziness. She trembled as she heard �Содержание again her mother’s voice saying constantly with foolish insistence: “Derevaun Seraun! Derevaun Seraun!” She stood up in a sudden impulse of terror. Escape! She must escape! Frank would save her. He would give her life, perhaps love, too. But she wanted to live. Why should she be unhappy? She had a right to happiness. Frank would take her in his arms, fold her in his arms. He would save her. She stood among the swaying crowd in the station at the North Wall. He held her hand and she knew that he was speaking to her, saying something about the passage aver and over again. The station was full of soldiers with brown baggages. Through the wide doors of the sheds she caught a glimpse of the black mass of the boat, lying in beside the quay wall, with illumined portholes. She answered nothing. She felt her cheek pale and cold and, out of a maze of distress, she prayed to God to direct her, to show her what was her duty. The boat blew a long mournful whistle into the mist. If she went, to-morrow she would be on the sea with Frank, steaming towards Buenos Aires. Their passage had been booked. Could she still draw back after all he had done for her? Her distress awoke nausea in her body and she kept moving her lips in silent fervent prayer. A bell clanged upon her heart. She felt him seize her hand: “Come! ” All the seas of the world tumbled about her heart. He was drawing her into them; he would drown her. She gripped with both hands at the iron railing. “Come!” No! No! No! It was impossible. Her hands clutched the iron in frenzy. Amid the seas she sent a cry of anguish! “Eveline! Evvy! ” He rushed beyond the barrier and called to her to follow. He was shouted at to go on but he still called to her. She set her white face to him, passive, like a helpless animal. Her eyes gave him no sign of love or farewell or recognition. Questions and Tasks for the Analysis of the Story 1. Speak about James Joyce and his main contribution to British and world literature. James Joyce was an Irish man. What place does his motherland occupy in his writing? 2. Give a short summary of the story. What exactly happens in the story? 3. Comment on the plot of the story. Is it dynamic? Is it full of events or otherwise? Where does the action mostly take place: in the outside world or in the inner world of the character? 4. Comment on the title of the story. Does it reveal the contents or the central message of the story? Can you suggest any other titles to the story? 5. The story is written in the third person, yet who appears to be the narrator? Give facts from the story to support your opinion. 6. Pay close attention to the temporal structure of the story, compare and comment on the proportion of the present, past and future in the main character’s inner world. Is present as �Содержание important for her as her past and her future? Point out the language means of expressing present, past and future (count up the number of times “would” and “used to” are repeated in the story and comment on the effect of these repetitions). What are the colors in which the past, the present and the future are painted? What is the girl’s present life like? Comment on the use of the word ‘dust’ in the story. What are its connotations? 7. Comment on her reminiscences of her family, when her mother was alike. Pay attention to the tonality of this passage. Did these memories affect her final decision? Is there a moment in the story when we get a hint that she will not go away? Pay attention to the use of the conjunction “if” in the following sentence: “If she went, tomorrow she would be…” What does it suggest? 8. Comment on the climax of the story. Pay attention to the use of expressive means in the passage describing her emotional state at the moment of departure. Are her actions directed by reason or by emotions? What exactly makes Eveline stay at home? 9. Does the story have a generalizing effect? How would you define its central message? 10. Summarize your observations and prepare the final analysis of the story. �Содержание Oscar Wilde (1854–1900) Oscar Fingal O’Flahertie Wills Wilde (16 October 1854 – 30 November 1900) was an Irish writer and poet. After writing in different forms throughout the 1880s, he became one of London’s most popular playwrights in the early 1890s. Today he is remembered for his epigrams, plays and the circumstances of his imprisonment, followed by his early death. Wilde’s parents were successful Dublin intellectuals. Their son became fluent in French and German early in life. At university Wilde read Greats; he proved himself to be an outstanding classicist, first at Dublin, then at Oxford. He became known for his involvement in the rising philosophy of aestheticism, led by two of his tutors, Walter Pater and John Ruskin. He also profoundly explored Roman Catholicism, to which he would later convert on his deathbed. After university, Wilde moved to London into fashionable cultural and social circles. As a spokesman for aestheticism, he tried his hand at various literary activities: he published a book of poems, lectured in the United States of America and Canada on the new “English Renaissance in Art”, and then returned to London where he worked prolifically as a journalist. Known for his biting wit, flamboyant dress, and glittering conversation, Wilde had become one of the most well-known personalities of his day. At the turn of the 1890s, he refined his ideas about the supremacy of art in a series of dialogues and essays, and incorporated themes of decadence, duplicity, and beauty into his only novel, The Picture of Dorian Gray (1890). The opportunity to construct aesthetic details precisely, and combine them with larger social themes, drew Wilde to write drama. He wrote Salome (1891) in French in Paris but it was refused a licence. Unperturbed, Wilde produced four society comedies in the early 1890s, which made him one of the most successful playwrights of late Victorian London. At the height of his fame and success, whilst his masterpiece, The Importance of Being Earnest (1895), was still on stage in London, Wilde sued the father of his lover, Lord Alfred Douglas, for libel. After a series of trials, Wilde was convicted of gross indecency with other men and imprisoned for two years, held to hard labour. In prison he wrote De Profundis (written in 1897 & published in 1905), a long letter which discusses his spiritual journey through his trials, forming a dark counterpoint to his earlier philosophy of pleasure. Upon his release he left immediately for France, never to return to Ireland or Britain. There he wrote his last work, The Ballad of Reading Gaol (1898), a long poem commemorating the harsh rhythms of prison life. He died destitute in Paris at the age of forty-six. More than a hundred years after his death Oscar Wilde continues to gain new admirers in every part of the world: no playwright except Shakespeare is as widely quoted, and few wits are as often or as happily recalled. His outlook is best expressed by his own words: “We are all in the gutter, but some of us are looking at the sky”. �Содержание The Model Millionaire Unless one is wealthy there is no use in being a charming fellow. Romance is the privilege of the rich not the profession of the unemployed. The poor should be practical and prosaic. It is better to have a permanent income than to be fascinating. These are the great truths of modern life, which Hughie Erskine never realized. Poor Hughie! Intellectually, we must admit, he was not of much importance. He never said a brilliant or even an ill-natured thing in his life. But then he was wonderfully good-looking, with his crisp brown hair, his clear-cut profile, and his gray eyes. He was as popular with men as he was with women, and he had every accomplishment except that of making money. His father had bequeathed him his cavalry sword and a History of the Peninsular War in fifteen volumes. Hughie hung the first over his looking glass, put the second on a shelf between Ruff’s Guide and Bailey’s Magazine, and lived on two hundred a year that an old aunt allowed him. He had tried everything. He had gone on the Stock Exchange for six months; but what was a butterfly to do among bulls and bears? He had been a teamerchant for a little longer, but had soon tired of pekoe and souchong. Then he had tried selling dry sherry. That did not answer; the sherry was a little too dry. Ultimately he became nothing, a delightful, ineffectual young man with a perfect profile and no profession. To make matters worse, he was in love. The girl he loved was Laura Merton, the daughter of a retired Colonel who had lost his temper and his digestion in India, and had never found either of them again. Laura adored him, and he was ready to kiss her shoestrings. They were the handsomest couple in London, and had not a penny-piece between them. The Colonel was very fond of Hughie, but would not hear of any engagement. “Come to me, little boy when you have got ten thousand pounds of your own, and we will see about it,” he used to say; and Hughie looked very glum in those days, and had to go to Laura for consolation. One morning, as he was on his way to Holland Park, where the Mertons lived, he dropped in to see a great friend of his, Alan Trevor. Trevor was a painter. Indeed, few people escape that nowadays. But he was also an artist, and artists are rather rare. Personally he was a strange rough fellow, with a freckled face and a red, ragged beard. However, when he took up the brush he was a real master, and all his pictures were eagerly sought after. He had been very much attracted by Hughie at first, it must be acknowledged, entirely on the account of his personal charm. “The only people a painter should know,” he used to say, “are the people who are bete and beautiful, people who are an artistic pleasure to look at and an intellectual repose to talk to. Men who are dandies and women who are darlings rule the world, at least they should do so.” However, after he got to know Hughie better, he liked him quite as much for his bright, buoyant spirits and his generous, reckless nature, and had given him the permanent entree to his studio. When Hughie came in he found Trevor putting the finishing touches to a wonderful life-size portrait of a beggar-man. The beggar himself was standing on a raised platform in a corner of the studio. He was a wizened old man, with a face like wrinkled parchment, and a most piteous expression. Over his shoulder was flung a course brown cloak, all tears and tatters; his thick boots were patched and cobbled, and with one hand he leant on a rough stick, while with the other he held out his battered hat for alms. �Содержание “What an amazing model!” whispered Hughie, as he shook hands with his friend. “An amazing model?” shouted Trevor at the top of his voice; “I should think so! Such beggars as he are not to be met with every day. A trouvaille, mon cher; a living Velasquez! My stars! What an etching Rembrandt would have made out of him!” “Poor old chap!’ said Hughie, ‘how miserable he looks! But I suppose, to you painters, his face is his fortune?” “Certainly,” replied Trevor, “you don’t want a beggar to look happy, do you?” “How much does a model get for his sitting?” asked Hughie, as he found himself a comfortable seat on a divan. “A shilling an hour.” “And how much do you get for your picture, Alan?” “Oh, for this I get two thousand!” “Pounds?” “Guineas. Painters, poets, and physicians always get guineas.” “Well, I think the model should have a percentage,” cried Hughie, laughing; “they work quite as hard as you do.” “Nonsense, nonsense! Why, look at the trouble of laying on the paint alone, and standing all day long at one’s easel! It’s all very well, Hughie, for you to talk, but I assure you that there are moments when Art almost attains to the dignity of manual labour. But you mustn’t chatter; I’m very busy. Smoke a cigarette, and keep quiet.” After some time the servant came in, and told Trevor that the framemaker wanted to speak to him. “Don’t run away, Hughie,” he said, as he went out, “I will be back in a moment.” The old beggar-man took advantage of Trevor’s absence to rest for a moment on a wooden bench that was behind him. He looked so forlorn and wretched that Hughie could not help pitying him, and felt in his pockets to see what money he had. All he could find was a sovereign and some coppers. “Poor old fellow”, he thought to himself, “he wants it more than I do, but it means no hansoms for a fortnight”; and he walked across the studio and slipped the sovereign into the beggar’s hand. The old man started, and a faint smile flitted across his withered lips. “Thank you, sir”, he said, “thank you.” Then Trevor arrived, and Hughie took his leave, blushing a little at what he had done. He spent the day with Laura, got a charming scolding for his extravagance, and had to walk home. That night he strolled into the Palette Club about eleven o’clock, and found Trevor sitting by himself in the smoking-room drinking hock and seltzer. “Well, Alan, did you get that picture finished all right?” He said as he lit his cigarette. “Finished and framed, my boy!” answered Trevor, “and by the by, you have made a conquest: that old model you saw is quite devoted to you. I had to tell him all about you, who you are, where you live. What your income is, what prospects you have.” �Содержание “My dear Alan”, cried Hughie, “I shall probably find him waiting for me when I go home. But, of course, you are only joking … Poor old wretch! I wish I could do something for him. I think it is dreadful that any one should be so miserable. I have got heaps of old clothes at home – do you think he would care for any of them? Why, these rags are falling to bits.” “But he looks splendid in them”, said Trevor. “I wouldn’t paint him in a frock coat for anything. What you call rags I call romance. What seems poverty to you is picturesqueness to me. However, I’ll tell him of your offer.” “Alan”, said Hughie seriously, “you painters are a heartless lot.” “An artist’s heart is his head,” replied Trevor; “and besides, our business is to realize the world as we see it, not to reform it as we know it. A chacun son metier. And now tell me how Laura is. The old model was quite interested in her.” “You don’t mean to say you talked to him about her?” said Hughie. “Certainly I did. He knows all about the relentless colonel, the lovely Laura, and the 10,000 pounds.” “You told that old beggar all my private affairs?” cried Hughie, looking very red and angry. “My dear boy”, said Trevor, smiling, “that old beggar, as you call him, is one of the richest men in Europe. He could buy all London tomorrow without overdrawing his account. He has a house in every capital, dines off gold plates, and can prevent Russia going to war when he chooses.” “What on earth do you mean?” exclaimed Hughie. “What I say,” said Trevor. “The old man you saw today in the studio was Baron Houseberg. He is a great friend of mine, buys all my pictures and that sort of thing, and gave me a commission a month ago to paint him as a beggar. Que voulez-vous? La fantaisie d’un millionaire! And I must say he made a magnificent figure in his rags, or perhaps I should say in my rags; they are an old suit I got in Spain.” “Baron Houseberg!” cried Hughie. “Good Heavens! I gave him a sovereign”. And he sank into the armchair, the picture of dismay. “Gave him a sovereign!” shouted Trevor, and he burst into a roar of laughter. “My dear boy, you will never see it again.” “I think you might have told me, Alan,” said Hughie sulkily, “and not have let me make such a fool of myself.” “Well, to begin with, Hughie,” said Trevor, “it never entered my mind that you went about distributing alms in that reckless way. I can understand your kissing a pretty model, but your giving a sovereign to an ugly one – by Jove, no! Besides, the fact that I really was not at home today to any one; and when you came in I didn’t know whether Houseberg would like his name mentioned. You know he wasn’t in full dress.” “What a duffer he must think me!” said Hughie. “Not at all. He was in the highest spirits after you left, kept chuckling to himself and rubbing his old wrinkled hands together. I couldn’t make out why he was so interested to know all about you but I see it all now. He’ll invest your sovereign for you, Hughie, pay you the interest every six months, and have a capital story to tell after dinner.” �Содержание “I am an unlucky devil,” growled Hughie. “The best thing I can do is to go to bed; and my dear Alan, you mustn’t tell anyone. I shouldn’t dare show my face in the Row.” “Nonsense. It reflects the highest credit of your philanthropic spirit, Hughie. And don’t run away. Have another cigarette, and you can talk about Laura as much as you like.” However, Hughie wouldn’t stop, but walked home, feeling very unhappy and leaving Alan in fits of laughter. The next morning, as he was at breakfast, the servant brought him up a card on which was written, “Monsieur Gustave Naudin, de la par de M. le Baron Houseberg.” “I suppose he has come for an apology,” said Hughie to himself and he told the servant to show the visitor up. An old gentleman with gold spectacles and very gray hair came into the room, and said, in a slight French accent, “Have I the honour of addressing Monsieur Erskine?” Hughie bowed. “I have come from Baron Houseberg,” he continued. “The Baron – ” “I beg, sir, that you will offer my sincerest apologies,” stammered Hughie. “The Baron”, said the old gentleman with a smile, “has commissioned me to bring you this letter”; and he extended a sealed envelope. On the outside was written, “A wedding present to Hugh Erskine and Laura Merton, from an old beggar”, and inside was a cheque for ₤10,000. When they were married Alan Trevor was the best man, and the Baron made a speech at the wedding breakfast. “Millionaire models,” remarked Alan, “are rare enough, but, by Jove, model millionaires are rarer still!” Questions and Tasks for the Analysis of the Story 1. Speak about Oscar Wilde and his aesthetic and literary principles. Is this a typical Oscar Wilde story or is it different in some way? 2. What exactly happens in the story? Give the gist of the plot. Do you find it intricate or rather trivial? In the Penguin Edition this story was published in the collection of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. Was it a random choice or are there good reasons for it? Can we regard this story as a kind of modern fairy tale? What fairy tale features can we point out in the story? 3. The story opens with a short introduction in which the author states the well known maxim. Analyze the means of generalization employed by the author in this maxim. Comment on the role of this introduction in the structure of the story. Do the ensuing events prove the author’s statement or disprove it? 4. Give sketches of the main characters (draw a parallel with the typical fairy tale characters). Are they depicted very minutely or rather schematically? Point out the expressive means employed by the author to portray the characters. 5. Comment on the general mood of the story. Is it lyrical, matter-of-fact or ironical? How is this mood created? �Содержание 6. Can you hear the voice of the narrator in the story? What is the role of the narrator? What does it add to the general mood of the story? 7. Oscar Wilde is known as a great master of paradox and pun. Are these devices used in this story? Point them out and comment on their stylistic effect. What are other expressive means employed by Oscar Wilde and what is their effect? 8. Comment on the message of the story. What appeals to you most in the story? What is your general impression in the story? You are welcome to add your own observations about the message and the style of the story. 9. Sum up your observations and present the final analysis of the story. �Содержание Katherine Mans ield (1888–1923) Kathleen Mansfield Murry (1888–1923) was a prominent modernist writer of short fiction who was born and brought up in colonial New Zealand and wrote under the pen name of Katherine Mansfield, which is in itself a short form of her real name as she was born Katherine Mansfield Beauchamp. She moved to London in 1903, where she attended Queen’s College, along with her two sisters. Mansfield recommenced playing the cello, an occupation that she believed, during her time at Queen’s, she would take up professionally, but she also began contributing to the school newspaper, with such a dedication to it that she eventually became editor during this period. She was particularly interested in the works of the French Symbolists and Oscar Wilde, and she was appreciated amongst peers for her vivacious and charismatic approach to life and work. Mansfield first began journeying into continental Europe from 1903–1906, mainly to Belgium and Germany. After finishing her schooling in England, Mansfield returned to her New Zealand home in 1906, only then beginning to write short stories. She had several works published in the Native Companion (Australia), which was her first paid writing work, and by this time she had her mind set on becoming a professional writer. It was also the first occasion on which she used the pseudonym ‘K. Mansfield’. She rapidly wearied of the provincial New Zealand lifestyle, and of her family, during this time, and two years later headed again for Londo. Back in London in 1908, Mansfield quickly fell into the bohemian way of life lived by many artists and writers of that era. She hastily entered into a marriage, with a singing teacher 11 years her elder, George Bowden, but left him the same evening, having failed to consummate the marriage. Mansfield’s time in Bavaria was to have a significant effect on her literary outlook. She was introduced to the works of Anton Chekhov, a writer who proved to have greater influence upon her writing in the short-term than Wilde, on whom she had been fixated during her earlier years. She returned to London in January 1910, and had over a dozen works published in A.R. Orage’s The New Age, a socialist magazine and highly-regarded intellectual publication Although discouraged by the volume’s relative lack of success, Mansfield submitted a lightweight story to a new avant-garde magazine called Rhythm. The piece was rejected by the magazine’s editor, John Middleton Murry, who requested something darker. Mansfield and Murray had begun, in 1911, a relationship that would culminate in their marriage in 1918. Later that year, they moved to Paris, with the hope that the change of setting would make writing for both of them easier. The couple had befriended D.H. Lawrence and his wife. Mansfield began to broaden her literary acquaintances for the remainder of the year, �Содержание encountering Virginia Woolf, T.S. Eliot, Lytton Strachey, and Bertrand Russell through social gatherings and introductions from others. At the beginning of 1917, Mansfield and Murry separated, although he continued to visit her at her new apartment. Mansfield entered into her most prolific period of writing post-1916, which began with several stories, including Mr. Reginald Peacock’s Day and A Dill Pickle being published in The New Age. In December 1917, Mansfield became ill, and was diagnosed with tuberculosis. Rejecting the idea of a sanatorium on the basis that it would cut her off from writing, she took the only available option, which was to move abroad during the English winter. She moved to Bandol, France, but stayed at a half-deserted and cold hotel, where she became depressed. However, she continued to produce stories. “Miss Brill,” the bittersweet story of a fragile woman living an ephemeral life of observation and simple pleasures in Paris, established Mansfield as one of the preeminent writers of the Modernist period, upon its publication in 1920’s Bliss. The title story from that collection, “Bliss,” which involved a similar character facing her husband’s infidelity, also found critical acclaim. She followed with the equally praised collection, The Garden Party, published in 1922. She died in 1923 and was buried in a cemetery in the Fontainebleau District in the town of Avon. A street in Menton, France, where she lived and wrote, is named after her and a Fellowship is offered annually to enable a New Zealand writer to work at her former home, the Villa Isola Bella. New Zealand’s pre-eminent short story competition is also named in her honour. A Cup of Tea Rosemary Fell was not exactly beautiful. No, you couldn’t have called her beautiful. Pretty? Well, if you took her to pieces… But why be so cruel as to take anyone to pieces? She was young, brilliant, extremely modern, exquisitely well dressed, amazingly well read in the newest of the new books, and her parties were the most delicious mixture of the really important people and… artists – quaint creatures, discoveries of hers, some of them too terrifying for words, but others quite presentable and amusing. Rosemary had been married two years. She had a duck of a boy. No, not Peter – Michael. And her husband absolutely adored her. They were rich, really rich, not just comfortably well off, which is odious and stuffy and sounds like one’s grandparents. But if Rosemary wanted to shop she would go to Paris as you and I would go to Bond Street. If she wanted to buy flowers, the car pulled up at that perfect shop in Regent Street, and Rosemary inside the shop just gazed in her dazzled, rather exotic way, and said: “I want those and those and those. Give me four bunches of those. And that jar of roses. Yes, I’ll have all the roses in the jar. No, no lilac. It’s got no shape.” The attendant bowed and put the lilac out of sight, as though this was only too true; lilac was dreadfully shapeless. “Give me those stumpy little tulips. Those red and white ones.” And she was followed to the car by a thin shop-girl, staggering under an immense white paper armful that looked like a baby in long clothes… One winter afternoon she had been buying something in a little antique shop in Curzon Street. It was a shop she liked. For one thing, one usually had it to oneself. And then the man who kept it was ridiculously fond of serving her. He beamed whenever she came in. He clasped his �Содержание hands; he was so gratified he could scarcely speak. Flattery, of course. All the same, there was something… “You see, madam,” he would explain in his low respectful tones, “I love my things. I would rather not part with them than sell them to someone who does not appreciate them, who has not that fine feeling which is so rare…” And breathing deeply, he unrolled a tiny square of blue velvet and pressed it on the glass counter with his pale finger-tips. Today it was a little box. He had been keeping it for her. He had shown it to nobody as yet. An exquisite little enamel box with a glace so fine it looked as though it had been baked in cream. On the lid a minute creature stood under a flowery tree, and a more minute creature still had her arms round his neck. Her hat, really no bigger than a geranium petal, hung from a branch; it had green ribbons. And there was a pink cloud like a watchful cherub floating above their heads. Rosemary took her hands out of her long gloves. She always took off her gloves to examine such things. Yes, she liked it very much. She loved it; it was a great duck. She must have it. And, turning the creamy box, opening and shutting it, she couldn’t help noticing how charming her hands were against the blue velvet. The shopman, in some dim cavern of his mind, may have dared to think so too. For he took a pencil, leant over the counter, and his pale bloodless fingers crept timidly towards those rosy, flashing ones, as he murmured gently. “If I may venture to point out to madam, the flowers on the little lady’s bodice.” “Charming!” Rosemary admired the flowers. But what was the price? For a moment the shopman did not seem to hear. Then a murmur reached her. “Twenty- eight guineas, madam.” “Twenty-eight guineas.” Rosemary gave no sign. She laid the little box down; she buttoned her gloves again. “Twenty-eight guineas. Even if one is rich…” She looked vague. She stared at a plump tea-kettle like a plump hen above the shopman’s head, and her voice was dreamy as she answered: “Well, keep it for me – will you? I’ll…” But the shopman had already bowed as though keeping it for her was all any human being could ask. He would be willing, of course, to keep it for her for ever. The discreet door shut with a click. She was outside on the step, gazing at the winter afternoon. Rain was falling, and with the rain it seemed the dark came too, spinning down like ashes. There was a cold bitter taste in the air, and the new-lighted lamps looked sad. Sad were the lights in the houses opposite. Dimly they burned as if regretting something. And people hurried by, hidden under their hateful umbrellas. Rosemary felt a strange pang. She pressed her muff against her breast; she wished she had the little box, too, to cling to. Of course the car was there. She’d only to cross the pavement. But still she waited. There are moments, horrible moments in life, when one emerges from shelter and looks out, and it’s awful. One oughtn’t to give way to them. One ought to go home and have an extra-special tea. But at the very instant of thinking that, a young girl, thin, dark, shadowy – where had she come from? – was standing at Rosemary’s elbow and a voice like a sigh, almost like a sob, breathed: “Madam, may I speak to you a moment?” “Speak to me?” Rosemary turned. She saw a little battered creature with enormous eyes, someone quite young, no older than herself, who clutched at her coat-collar with reddened hands, and shivered as though she had just come out of the water. �Содержание “M – madam,” stammered the voice. “Would you let me have the price of a cup of tea?” “A cup of tea?’ There was something simple, sincere in that voice; it wasn’t in the least the voice of a beggar. “Then have you no money at all?” asked Rosemary. “None, madam,” came the answer. “How extraordinary!” Rosemary peered through the dusk and the girl gazed back at her. How more than extraordinary! And suddenly it seemed to Rosemary such an adventure. It was like something out of a novel by Dostoyevsky, this meeting in the dusk. Supposing she took the girl home? Supposing she did do one of those things she was always reading about or seeing on the stage, what would happen? It would be thrilling. And she heard herself saying afterwards to the amazement of her friends: “I simply took her home with me,” as she stepped forward and said to that dim person beside her: “Come home to tea with me.” The girl drew back startled. She even stopped shivering for a moment. Rosemary put out a hand and touched her arm. “I mean it,” she said, smiling. And she felt how simple and kind her smile was. “Why won’t you? Do. Come home with me now in my car and have tea.” “You – you don’t mean it, madam,” said the girl, and there was pain in her voice. “But I do,” cried Rosemary. “I want you to. To please me. Come along.” The girl put her fingers to her lips and her eyes devoured Rosemary. “You’re – you’re not taking me to the police station?” she stammered. “The police station!” Rosemary laughed out. “Why should I be so cruel? No, I only want to make you warm and to hear – anything you care to tell me.” Hungry people are easily led. The footman held the door of the car open, and a moment later they were skimming through the dusk. “There!” said Rosemary. She had a feeling of triumph as she slipped her hand through the velvet strap. She could have said, “How I’ve got you,” as she gazed at the little captive she had netted. But of course she meant it kindly. Oh, more than kindly. She was going to prove to this girl that – wonderful things did happen in life, that – fairy god-mothers were real, that – rich people had hearts, and that women were sisters. She turned impulsively, saying: “Don’t be frightened. After all, why shouldn’t you come back with me? We’re both women. If I’m the more fortunate, you ought to expect…” But happily at that moment, for she didn’t know how the sentence was going to end, the car stopped. The bell was rung, the door opened, and with a charming, protecting, almost embracing movement, Rosemary drew the other into the hall. Warmth, softness, light, a sweet scent, all those things so familiar to her she never even thought about them, she watched that other receive. It was fascinating. She was like the rich little girl in her nursery with all the cupboards to open, all the boxes to unpack. “Come, come upstairs,” said Rosemary, longing to begin to be generous. “Come up to my room.” And, besides, she wanted to spare this poor little thing from being stared at by the servants; she decided as they mounted the stairs she would not even ring to Jeanne, but take off her things by herself. The great thing was to be natural! And “There!” cried Rosemary again, as they reached her beautiful big bedroom with the �Содержание curtains drawn, the fire leaping on her wonderful lacquer furniture, her gold cushions and the primrose and blue rugs. The girl stood just inside the door; she seemed dazed. But Rosemary didn’t mind that. “Come and sit down,” she cried, dragging her big chair up to the fire, ”in this comfy chair. Come and get warm. You look so dreadfully cold.” “I daren’t, Madam,” said the girl and she edged backwards. “Oh, please,” – Rosemary ran forward – “you mustn’t be frightened, you mustn’t, really. Sit down, when I’ve taken off my things we shall go into the next room and have tea and be cosy. Why are you afraid?” And gently she half pushed the thin figure into its deep cradle. But there was no answer. The girl stayed just as she had been put, with her hands by her sides and her mouth slightly open. To be quite sincere, she looked rather stupid. But Rosemary wouldn’t acknowledge it. She leant over her, saying: “Won’t you take off your hat? Your pretty hair is all wet. And one is so much more comfortable without a hat, isn’t one?” There was a whisper that sounded like “Very good, madam,” and the crushed hat was taken off. “And let me help you off with your coat, too,” said Rosemary. The girl stood up. But she held on to the chair with one hand and let Rosemary pull. It was quite an effort. The other scarcely helped her at all. She seemed to stagger like a child, and the thought came and went through Rosemary’s mind, that if people wanted helping they must respond a little, just a little, otherwise it became very difficult indeed. And what was she to do with the coat now? She left it on the floor, and the hat too. She was just going to take a cigarette off the mantelpiece when the girl said quickly, but so lightly and strangely: “I’m very sorry, madam, but I’m going to faint. I shall go off, madam, if I don’t have something.” “Good heavens, how thoughtless I am!” Rosemary rushed to the bell. “Tea! Tea at once! And some brandy immediately!” The maid was gone again, but the girl almost cried out: “No, I don’t want no brandy. I never drink brandy. It’s a cup of tea I want, madam.” And she burst into tears. It was a terrible and fascinating moment. Rosemary knelt beside her chair. “Don’t cry, poor little thing,” she said. “Don’t cry.” And she gave the other her lace handkerchief. She really was touched beyond words. She put her arm round those thin, birdlike shoulders. Now at last the other forgot to be shy, forgot everything, except that they were both women, and gasped out: “I can’t go on any longer like this. I can’t bear it. I can’t bear it. I shall do away with myself. I can’t bear no more.” “You shan’t have to. I’ll look after you. Don’t cry any more. Don’t you see what a good thing it was that you met me? We’ll have tea and you’ll tell me everything. And I shall arrange something. I promise. Do stop crying. It’s so exhausting. Please!” The other did stop just in time for Rosemary to get up before the tea came. She had the table placed between them. She plied the poor little creature with everything, all the sandwiches, all �Содержание the bread and butter, and every time her cup was empty she filled it with tea, cream and sugar. People always said sugar was so nourishing. As for herself she didn’t eat; she smoked and looked away tactfully so that the other should not be shy. And really the effect of that slight meal was marvellous. When the tea-table was carried away a new being, a light, frail creature with tangled hair, dark lips, deep, lighted eyes, lay back in the big chair in a kind of sweet languor, looking at the blaze. Rosemary lit a fresh cigarette; it was time to begin. “And when did you have your last meal?” she asked softly. But at that moment the doorhandle turned. “Rosemary, may I come in?” It was Philip. “Of course.” He came in. “Oh, I’m so sorry,” he said, and stopped and stared. “It’s quite all right,” said Rosemary, smiling. “This is my friend. Miss –” “Smith, madam,” said the languid figure, who was strangely still and unafraid. “Smith,” said Rosemary. “We are going to have a little talk.” “Oh, yes,” said Philip, “Quite,” and his eye caught sight of the coat and hat on the floor. He came over to the fire and turned his back to it. “It’s a beastly afternoon,” he said curiously, still looking at that listless figure, looking at its hands and boots, and then at Rosemary again. “Yes, isn’t it?” said Rosemary enthusiastically. “Vile.” Philip smiled his charming smile. “As a matter of fact,” said he, “I wanted you to come into the library for a moment. Would you? Will Miss Smith excuse us?” The big eyes were raised to him, but Rosemary answered for her: “Of course she will.” And they went out of the room together. “I say”, said Philip, when they were alone. “Explain, who is she? What does it all mean?” Rosemary, laughing, leaned against the door and said: “I picked her up in Curzon Street. Really. She’s a real pick-up. She asked me for the price of a cup of tea, and I brought her home with me.” “But what on earth are you going to do with her?” cried Philip. “Be nice to her,” said Rosemary quickly. “Be frightfully nice to her. Look after her. I don’t know how. We haven’t talked yet. But show her – treat her – make her feel…” “My darling girl,” said Philip, “you’re quite mad, you know. It simply can’t be done.” “I knew you’d say that,” retorted Rosemary. “Why not? I want to. Isn’t that a reason? And besides, one’s always reading about these things. I decided –” “But,” said Philip slowly, and he cut the end of a cigar, “she’s so astonishingly pretty.” “Pretty?” Rosemary was so surprised that she blushed. “Do you think so? I – I hadn’t thought about it.” “Good Lord!” Philip struck a match. “She’s absolutely lovely. Look again, my child. I was bowled over when I came into your room just now. However… I think you’re making a ghastly �Содержание mistake. Sorry, darling, if I’m crude and all that. But let me know if Miss Smith is going to dine with us in time for me to look up The Milliner’s Gazette.” “You absurd creature!” said Rosemary, and she went out of the library, but not back to her bedroom. She went to her writing – room and sat down at her desk. Pretty! Absolutely lovely! Bowled over! Her heart beat like a heavy bell. Pretty! Lovely! She drew her chequebook towards her. But no, cheques would be no use, of course. She opened a drawer and took out five pound notes, looked at them, put two back, and holding the three squeezed in her hand, she went back to her bedroom. Half an hour later Philip was still in the library, when Rosemary came in. “I only wanted to tell you,” said she, and she leaned against the door again and looked at him with her dazzled exotic gaze. “Miss Smith won’t dine with us to – night.” Philip put down the paper. “Oh, what’s happened? Previous engagement?” Rosemary came over and sat down on his knee. “She insisted on going,” said she, “so I gave the poor little thing a present of money. I couldn’t keep her against her will, could I?” she added softly. Rosemary had just done her hair, darkened her eyes a little and put on her pearls. She put up her hands and touched Philip’s cheeks. “Do you like me?” said she, and her tone, sweet, husky, troubled him. “I like you awfully,” he said, and he held her tighter. “Kiss me.” There was a pause. Then Rosemary said dreamily: “I saw a fascinating little box today. It cost twenty-eight guineas. May I have it?” Philip jumped her on his knee. “You may, little wasteful one,” said he. But that was not really what Rosemary wanted to say. “Philip,” she whispered, and she pressed his head against her bosom, “am I pretty?” Questions and Tasks for the Analysis of the Story 1. Speak about Katherine Mansfield and the peculiarities of her artistic style. 2. Give the gist of the story. What exactly happens in the story? Characterize the plot of the story and its development. Who is the narrator of the story? Is there one narrator or does the author delegate the narration to the characters? Give evidence from the text to support your opinion. 3. Read very carefully the first two paragraphs of the story which present Rosemary Fell. In what form is the description presented? Who is speaking? How many adjectives are used in this two paragraphs and what is their role? Point out various means of intensification and comment on their contribution to the description of Rosemary. Pay attention to her son’s name. Why does the author draw our attention to it? How many times does the author use the transferred epithet ‘a duck of a boy’? What is the effect of this repetition? 4. Analyze the passage starting with “One winter afternoon…” and ending with “He would be willing, of course, to keep it for her for ever.” and comment on this part of narration. Who is �Содержание the narrator here? Through whose eyes can we see the box? What kind of person is the shopkeeper? How is his character-sketch made? Why didn’t Rosemary buy the box immediately? What is the role of unfinished sentences in this part of the text? 5. Analyze the description of the winter afternoon. The author gives the description of the evening in great detail. What is the role of this description? What is the tone of the description? What is the undertone that you can discern? Rosemary was very upset, wasn’t she? Do you share Rosemary’s feelings? Does the author sympathize with Rosemary? Support your opinion by quoting the text. 6. Read very carefully the events described in the story and comment on Rosemary’s actions and their motives. What made her invite the poor girl to her house? Did she do it for the girl’s or for her own sake? Prove your point of view by quoting the text. Comment on Rosemary’s behavior when she brought the girl home. Pick out the means of drawing the picture of a generous person that Rosemary tries to be. Is it her real self or is she acting the role of a generous person? What proves the fact that it is all staged? Comment on the sentence: “She was longing to be generous”. 7. Comment on the outcome of the story and the sudden end of Rosemary’s generosity. What is the role of the short exclamatory sentences: “Pretty! Absolutely lovely! …”? What is the role of the small detail about a money-gift in this episode? 8. There is a break in the narration of events in between Rosemary’s going to her bedroom and her returning to the library half an hour later. Let’s reconstruct the events that happened during this half an hour. Why does the author resort to the gap in the development of the plot? Analyze the dialogue that took place between Philip and Rosemary half an hour later and its role in revealing the message of the story. Comment on the closing sentence of the story. 9. What do you think is the theme and message of the story. Can we make a conclusion that K. Mansfield is a great master of psychological portrayal of people? 10. Summarize your answers, add your own observations about the style of Katherine Mansfield and prepare the final analysis of the story. �Содержание Somerset Maugham (1874–1965) William Somerset Maugham (1874–1965) was an English playwright, novelist and short story writer. He was among the most popular writers of his era, and reputedly, the highest paid author during the 1930s. Maugham’s father was an English lawyer handling the legal affairs of the British embassy in Paris, France. Since French law declared that all children born on French soil could be conscripted for military service, his father arranged for William to be born at the embassy, technically on British soil, saving him from conscription into any future French wars. Maugham’s mother Edith Mary was consumptive, a condition for which her doctor prescribed childbirth. As a result, Maugham had three older brothers already enrolled in boarding school by the time he was three and he was effectively raised as an only child. Childbirth proved no cure for tuberculosis: Edith’s sixth and final son died on 25 January 1882, one day after his birth, on Maugham’s eighth birthday. Edith died six days later, on 31 January, at the age of 41. The death of his mother left Maugham traumatized for life, and he kept his mother’s photograph by his bedside until his own death at the age of 91 in Nice, France. Two years after Maugham’s mother’s death, his father died of cancer. William was sent back to England to be cared for by his uncle, Henry MacDonald Maugham, the Vicar of Whitstable, in Kent. The move was catastrophic. Henry Maugham proved cold and emotionally cruel. The King’s School, Canterbury, where William was a boarder during school terms, proved merely another version of purgatory, where he was teased for his bad English (French had been his first language) and his short stature, which he inherited from his father. It is at this time that Maugham developed the stammer that would stay with him all his life, although it was sporadic and subject to mood and circumstance. Maugham was miserable both at the vicarage and at school. As a result, he developed a talent for applying a wounding remark to those who displeased him. This ability is sometimes reflected in the characters that populate his writings. At sixteen, Maugham refused to continue at The King’s School and his uncle allowed him to travel to Germany, where he studied literature, philosophy and German at Heidelberg University. He spent the next five years as a medical student at St Thomas’ Hospital, Lambeth, London. Some critics have assumed that the years Maugham spent studying medicine were a creative dead end, but Maugham himself felt quite the contrary. He was able to live in the lively city of London, to meet people of a “low” sort that he would never have met in one of the other professions, and to see them in a time of heightened anxiety and meaning in their lives. In maturity, he recalled the literary value of what he saw as a medical student: “I saw how men died. I saw how they bore pain. I saw what hope looked like, fear and relief” �Содержание In 1897, he wrote his book Liza of Lambeth, a tale of working-class adultery and its consequences. The novel Liza of Lambeth proved popular with both reviewers and the public, and the first print run sold out in a matter of weeks. This was enough to convince Maugham, who had qualified as a doctor, to drop medicine and embark on his sixty-five year career as a man of letters. Of his entry into the profession of writing he later said, “I took to it as a duck takes to water.” By 1914 Maugham was famous, with 10 plays produced and 10 novels published. Maugham’s masterpiece is generally agreed to be Of Human Bondage, a semiautobiographical novel that deals with the life of the main character Philip Carey, who like Maugham, was orphaned, and brought up by his pious uncle. Philip’s clubfoot causes him endless self-consciousness and embarrassment, echoing Maugham’s struggles with his stutter. Later successful novels were also based on real-life characters: The Moon and Sixpence fictionalizes the life of Paul Gauguin; and Cakes and Ale contains thinly veiled characterizations of authors Thomas Hardy and Hugh Walpole. Maugham’s last major novel, The Razor’s Edge, published in 1944, was a departure for him in many ways. While much of the novel takes place in Europe, its main characters are American, not British. The protagonist is a disillusioned veteran of World War I who abandons his wealthy friends and lifestyle, travelling to India seeking enlightenment. The story’s themes of Eastern mysticism and war-weariness struck a chord with readers as World War II waned, and a movie adaptation quickly followed. Among his short stories, some of the most memorable are those dealing with the lives of Western, mostly British, colonists in the Far East, and are typically concerned with the emotional toll exacted on the colonists by their isolation. Some of his more outstanding works in this genre include “Rain”, “Footprints in the Jungle”, and “The Outstation”. “Rain”, in particular, which charts the moral disintegration of a missionary attempting to convert the Pacific island prostitute Sadie Thompson, has kept its fame and been made into a movie several times. Maugham said that many of his short stories presented themselves to him in the stories he heard during his travels in the outposts of the Empire. In 1928, Maugham bought Villa Mauresque at Cap Ferrat on the French Riviera, which was his home the rest of his life. His output continued to be prodigious, including plays, short stories, novels, essays and travel books. Commercial success with high book sales, successful theatre productions and a string of film adaptations, backed by astute stock market investments, allowed Maugham to live a very comfortable life. He died in 1965 at his villa in France. Maugham wrote in a time when experimental modernist literature such as that of William Faulkner, Thomas Mann, James Joyce and Virginia Woolf was gaining increasing popularity and winning critical acclaim. In this context, his plain prose style was criticized as “such a tissue of clichés that one’s wonder is finally aroused at the writer’s ability to assemble so many and at his unfailing inability to put anything in an individual way”. W. Somerset Maugham’s style of writing is clear and precise. He does not impose his views on the reader. He puts a question and leaves it to the reader to answer it. Even criticizing something he sounds rather amused than otherwise. �Содержание The Happy Man It is a dangerous thing to order the lives of others and I have always wondered at the selfconfidence of the politicians, reformers and suchlike who are prepared to force upon their fellows measures that must alter their manners, habits, and points of view. I have always hesitated to give advice, for how can one advise another how to act unless one knows that other as well as one knows himself? Heaven knows, I know little enough of myself: I know nothing of others. We can only guess at the thoughts and emotions of our neighbours. Each one of us is a prisoner in a solitary tower land he communicates with the other prisoners, who form mankind, I by conventional signs that have not quite the same meaning for them as for himself. And life, unfortunately, is something that you can lead but once; mistakes are often irreparable and who am I that I should tell this one and that how he should lead it? Life is a difficult business and I have found it hard enough to make my own; a complete and rounded thing; I have not been tempted to teach my neighbour what he should do with his. But there are men who flounder at the journey’s start, the way before them is confused and hazardous, and on occasion, however unwillingly, I have been forced to point the finger of fate. Sometimes men have said to me, what shall I do with my life? And I have seen myself for a moment wrapped in the dark cloak of Destiny. Once I know that I advised well. I was a young man, and I lived in a modest apartment in London near Victoria Station. Late one afternoon, when I was beginning to think that I had worked enough for that day, I heard a ring at the bell. I opened the door to a total stranger. He asked me my name; I told him. He asked if he might come in. “Certainly.” He seemed a trifle embarrassed, I offered him a cigarette and he had some difficulty in lighting it without letting go off his hat. When he had satisfactorily achieved this feat I asked him if I should put it on a chair for him. He quickly did this and while doing it he dropped his umbrella. “I hope you don’t mind my coming to see you like this,” he “My name is Stephens and I am a doctor. You’re in the medical, I believe.” “Yes, but I don’t practise.” “No, I know. I’ve just read a book of yours about Spain and I wanted to ask you about it.” “It’s not a very good book, I’m afraid.” “The fact remains that you know something about Spain and there’s no one else I know who does. And I thought perhaps I wouldn’t mind giving me some information.” “I shall be very glad.” He was silent for a moment. He reached out for his hat and holding it in one hand absentmindedly stroked it with the other. I surmised that it gave him confidence. “I hope you won’t think it very odd for a perfect stranger to come to you like this.” He gave an apologetic laugh. “I’m not going to tell you the story of my life.” When people say this to me I always know that it is precisely what they are going to do. I do not mind. In fact I rather like it. “I was brought up by two old aunts. I’ve never been anywhere. I’ve never done anything. I’ve �Содержание been married for six years. I have children. I’m a medical officer at the Camberwell Infirmary. I can’t stick it any more.” There was something’ very striking in the short, sharp sentences he used. They had a forcible ring. I had not given him more than a cursory glance, but now I looked at him with curiosity. He was a little man, thick-set and stout, of thirty perhaps, with a round face from which shone small, dark and very bright eyes. His black hair was cropped close to a bullet-shaped head. He was dressed in a blue suit a good deal the worse for wear. It was baggy at the knees and the pockets bulged untidily. “You know what the duties are of a medical officer in an infirmary. One day is pretty much like another. And that's all I’ve to look forward to for the rest of my life. Do you think it's worth?” “It’s a means of livelihood,” I answered. “Yes, I know. The money’s pretty good.” “I don’t exactly know why you've come to me.” “Well, I wanted to know whether you thought there would any chance for an English doctor in Spain?” “Why Spain?” “I don’t know, I just have a fancy for it.” “It’s not like Carmen, you know.” “But there’s sunshine there, and there’s good wine, and there’s colour, and there's air you can breathe. Let me say what I have to say straight out. I heard by accident that there was no English doctor in Seville. Do you think 1 could earn a living there? Is it madness to give up a good safe job for an uncertainty?” “What does your wife think about it?” “She's willing.” “It's a great risk.” “I know. But if you say take it, I will; if you say stay where you re, I'll stay.” He was looking at me intently with those bright dark eyes of his and I knew that he meant what he said. I reflected for a moment. “Your whole future is concerned: you must decide for yourself. But this I can tell you: if you don't want money but are content to earn just enough to keep body and soul together, then go. For you will lead a wonderful life.” He left me, I thought about him for a day or two, and then forgot. The episode passed completely from my memory. Many years later, fifteen at least, I happened to be in Seville and having some trifling indisposition asked the hotel porter whether there was an English doctor in the town. He said there was and gave me the address. I took a cab and as I drove up to the house a little fat man came out of it. He hesitated when he caught sight of me. “Have you come to see me?” he said. “I’m the English doctor.” explained my errand and he asked me to come in. He lived in ordinary Spanish house, with a patio, and his consulting room which led out of it littered with papers, books, medical appliances, and lumber. The sight of it would have startled a squeamish patient. We did our business and then I asked the doctor �Содержание what his fee was. He shook his head and smiled. “There’s no fee.” “Why on earth not?” “Don’t you remember me? Why, I’m here because of something you said to me. You changed my whole life for me. I’m Stephens.” I had not the least notion what he was talking about. He reminded me of our interview, he repeated to me what we had said, and gradually, out of the night, a dim recollection of the incident came back to me. “I was wondering if I’d ever see you again,” he said, “I was wondering if ever I’d have a chance of thanking you for all you’ve done for me.” “It’s been a success then?” I looked at him. He was very fat now and bald, but his eyes twinkled gaily and his fleshy, red face bore an expression of perfect: good-humour. The clothes he wore, terribly shabby they were, had been made obviously by a Spanish tailor and his hat was the wide-brimmed sombrero of the Spaniard, He looked to me as though he knew a good bottle of wine when he saw it. He had a dissipated, though entirely sympathetic, appearance. You might have hesitated to let him remove your appendix, but you could not have imagined a more delightful creature to drink a glass of wine with. “Surely you were married?” I asked. “Yes. My wife didn’t like Spain, she went back to Camberwell she was more at home there.” “Oh, I’m sorry for that.” His black eyes flashed a bacchanalian smile. He really had somewhat the look of a young Silenus. “Life is full of compensations,” he murmured. The words were hardly out of his mouth when a Spanish woman, no longer in her first youth, but still boldly and voluptuously beautiful, appeared at the door. She spoke to him in Spanish, and I could not fail to perceive that she was the mistress of the house. As he stood at the door to let me out he said to me: “You told me when last I saw you that if I came here I should, earn just enough money to keep body and soul together, but that I should lead a wonderful life. Well, I want to tell you that you were right. Poor I have been and poor I shall always be, but by heaven I’ve enjoyed myself. I wouldn’t exchange the life I’ve had with that of any king in the world.” Questions and Tasks for the Analysis of the Story 1. Point out the most important facts of Maugham’s biography which are important for understanding his artistic credo and the peculiarities of his individual style. 2. Comment on the title of the story and its theme. 3. Analyze the thesis presented by the author in the exposition to the story and express your own opinion about it. How does it reflect the mentality and the cultural specificity of the English? Point out the language means of generalization used in the presentation of the thesis. Point out the metaphor employed by the author in describing people in modern society and relations between them. Point out other expressive means in the exposition and comment on �Содержание their contribution to the style. 4. Give a short summary of events described in the story and characterize the plot. Is the plot intricate or rather simple and predictable? 5. What parts can we point out in the structure of the story? Reread the conversation that took place between the narrator and the unexpexted visitor. Why did the author feel so surprised to see a total stranger in his house? Was the author willing to give advice to the stranger? How did he try to decline the request? What made him finally give in and listen to the visitor’s problem? 6. Comment on the character of Dr. Stepens and the means used by the author to portray his character. Pay special attention to the little details which reveal his character. Comment on the author’s method of character drawing. What exactly was wrong with the man’s life that made him say “I can’t stick it any more”? Analyze the sentences in which he presents his story. What does the repetition of the same structure in his story reflect? 7. Compare the description of Stephens’ appearance in London and in Spain. What were the reasons of such a radical change? Point out the epithets, similes and other stylistic means which are used to describe his appearance. 8. Comment on the concluding lines of the story which actually express the message of the story. What is, in your opinion, the message of the story? Write an essay on the topic of happiness. You may make use of the following quotations. “To be without some of the things you want is an indispensible part of happiness”. Bertrand Russel “The foolish man seeks happiness in the distance, the wise man grows it under his feet”. James Oppenhaim “Happiness is nothing more than a good health and a bad memory” . Albert Scgweitzer “Now and then it’s good to pause in our pursuit of happiness and just be happy”. Guillaume Apollinaire “To be happy for an hour, get drunk; to be happy for a year, fall in love; to be happy for life, take up gardening”. Chinese proverb �Содержание O. Henry (1862–1910) William Sidney Porter was born on September 11, 1862, in Greensboro, North Carolina. His middle name at birth was Sidney; he changed the spelling to Sydney in 1898. His parents were Dr. Algernon Sidney Porter, a physician, and Mary Jane Virginia Swaim Porter). When William was three, his mother died from tuberculosis, and he and his father moved into the home of his maternal grandmother. As a child, Porter was always reading, everything from classics to dime novels; his favorite works were Lane’s translation of One Thousand and One Nights, and Burton’s Anatomy of Melancholy. Porter graduated from his aunt Evelina Maria Porter’s elementary school in 1876. He then enrolled at the Lindsey Street High School. His aunt continued to tutor him until he was fifteen. In 1879, he started working in his uncles drugstore and in 1881, at the age of nineteen, he was licensed as a pharmacist. At the drugstore, he also showed off his natural artistic talents by sketching the townsfolk. Porter traveled with Dr. James K. Hall to Texas in March 1882, hoping that a change of air would help alleviate a persistent cough he had developed. While on the ranch, he learned bits of Spanish and German from the mix of immigrant ranch hands. He also spent time reading classic literature. Porter took a number of different jobs over the next several years, first as pharmacist then as a draftsman, bank teller and journalist. He also began writing as a sideline. Porter led an active social life in Austin, including membership in singing and drama groups. Porter was a good singer and musician. He played both the guitar and mandolin. He became a member of the “Hill City Quartet,” a group of young men who sang at gatherings and serenaded young women of the town. Porter met and began courting Athol Estes, then seventeen years old and from a wealthy family. Her mother objected to the match because Athol was ill, suffering from tuberculosis. On July 1, 1887, Porter eloped with Athol to the home of Reverend R.K. Smoot, where they were married. The couple continued to participate in musical and theater groups, and Athol encouraged her husband to pursue his writing. Athol gave birth to a son, who died hours after birth, and then a daughter. Porter began working at the First National Bank of Austin as a teller. In 1894, he was accused by the bank of embezzlement and lost his job but was not indicted. Porter and his family moved to Houston in 1895, where he started writing for the Post. His salary was only $25 a month, but it rose steadily as his popularity increased. Porter gathered ideas for his column by loitering in hotel lobbies and observing and talking to people there. This was a technique he used throughout his writing career. While he was in Houston, the First National Bank of Austin was audited and the federal auditors found �Содержание several discrepancies. They managed to get a federal indictment against Porter. Porter was subsequently arrested on charges of embezzlement, charges which he denied, in connection with his employment at the bank. Athol Estes Porter died on July 25, 1897, from tuberculosis. Having little to say in his own defense, was found guilty of embezzlement in February 1898, sentenced to five years jail, and imprisoned on March 25, 1898 While in prison, Porter, as a licensed pharmacist, worked in the prison hospital as the night druggist. Porter was given his own room in the hospital wing, and there is no record that he actually spent time in the cell block of the prison. He had fourteen stories published under various pseudonyms while he was in prison, but was becoming best known as O. Henry . Porter was released on July 24, 1901, for good behavior after serving three years. Porter reunited with his daughter Margaret, now age 11, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Porter’s most prolific writing period started in 1902, when he moved to New York City to be near his publishers. While there, he wrote 381 short stories. He wrote a story a week for over a year for the New York World Sunday Magazine. His wit, characterization and plot twists were adored by his readers, but often panned by critics. Porter married again in 1907, to childhood sweetheart Sarah (Sallie) Lindsey Coleman, whom he met again after revisiting his native state of North Carolina. His health began to deteriorate in 1908, which affected his writing. Sarah left him in 1909, and Porter died on June 5, 1910. O. Henry’s stories are famous for their surprise endings, to the point that such an ending is often referred to as an “O. Henry ending.” He was called the American answer to Guy de Maupassant. Both authors wrote twist endings, but O. Henry stories were much more playful. His stories are also well known for witty narration. Most of O. Henry’s stories are set in his own time, the early years of the 20th century. Many take place in New York City and deal for the most part with ordinary people: clerks, policemen, waitresses. Fundamentally a product of his time, O. Henry’s work provides one of the best examples of catching the entire flavor of an age written in the English language. Whether roaming the cattle-lands of Texas, exploring the art of the “gentle grafter,” or investigating the tensions of class and wealth in turn-of-the-century New York, O. Henry had an inimitable hand for isolating some element of society and describing it with an incredible economy and grace of language. The Cop and the Anthem On the bench in Madison Square Soapy moved uneasily. When wild geese honk high of nights, and when women without sealskin coats grow kind to their husbands, and when Soapy moves uneasily on his bench in the park, you may know that winter is near at hand. A dead leaf fell in Soapy’s lap. That was Jack Frost’s card. Jack is kind to the regular denizens of Madison Square, and gives fair warning of his annual call. At the corners of four streets he hands his pasteboard to the North Wind, footman of the mansion of All Outdoors, so that the inhabitants thereof may make ready. Soapy’s mind became cognizant of the fact that the time had come for him to resolve himself �Содержание into a singular Committee of Ways and Means to provide against the coming rigor. And therefore he moved uneasily on his bench. The hibernatorial ambitions of Soapy were not of the highest. In them were no considerations of Mediterranean cruises, of soporific Southern skies or drifting in the Vesuvian Bay. Three months on the Island was what his soul craved. Three months of assured board and bed and congenial company, safe from Boreas and bluecoats, seemed to Soapy the essence of things desirable. For years the hospitable Blackwell’s had been his winter quarters. Just as his more fortunate fellow New Yorkers had bought their tickets to Palm Beach and the Riviera each winter, so Soapy had made his humble arrangements for his annual hegira to the Island. And now the time was come. On the previous night three Sabbath newspapers, distributed beneath his coat, about his ankles and over his lap, had failed to repulse the cold as he slept on his bench near the spurting fountain in the ancient square. So the Island loomed big and timely in Soapy’s mind. He scorned the provisions made in the name of charity for the city’s dependents. In Soapy’s opinion the Law was more benign than Philanthropy. There was an endless round of institutions, municipal and eleemosynary, on which he might set out and receive lodging and food accordant with the simple life. But to one of Soapy’s proud spirit the gifts of charity are encumbered. If not in coin you must pay in humiliation of spirit for every benefit received at the hands of philanthropy. As Caesar had his Brutus, every bed of charity must have its toll of a bath, every loaf of bread its compensation of a private and personal inquisition. Wherefore it is better to be a guest of the law, which, though conducted by rules, does not meddle unduly with a gentleman’s private affairs. Soapy, having decided to go to the Island, at once set about accomplishing his desire. There were many easy ways of doing this. The pleasantest was to dine luxuriously at some expensive restaurant; and then, after declaring insolvency, be handed over quietly and without uproar to a policeman. An accommodating magistrate would do the rest. Soapy left his bench and strolled out of the square and across the level sea of asphalt, where Broadway and Fifth Avenue flow together. Up Broadway he turned, and halted at a glittering sign, where are gathered together nightly the choicest products of the grape, the silkworm, and the protoplasm. Soapy had confidence in himself in the lowest button of his vest upward. He was shaven, and his coat was decent and his neat black, ready-tied four-in-hand had been presented to him by a lady missionary on Thanksgiving Day. If he could reach a table in the restaurant unsuspected success would be his. The portion of him that would show above the table would raise no doubt in the waiter’s mind. A roasted mallard duck, thought Soapy, would be about the thing – with a bottle of Chablis, and then Camembert, a demitasse and a cigar. One dollar for the cigar would be enough. The total would not be so high as to call forth any supreme manifestation of revenge from the I management; and yet the meat would leave him filled and happy for the journey to his winter refuge. But as Soapy set foot inside the restaurant door the head waiter’s eye fell upon his frayed trousers and decadent shoes. Strong and ready hands turned him about and conveyed him in silence and haste to the sidewalk and averted the ignoble fate of the menaced mallard. �Содержание Soapy turned off Broadway. It seemed that his route to the coveted Island was not to be an epicurean one. Some other way of entering limbo must be thought of. At a corner of Sixth Avenue electric lights and cunningly displayed wares behind plate-glass made a shop window conspicuous. Soapy took a cobblestone and dashed it through the glass. People came running around the corner, a policeman in the lead. Soapy stood still, with his hands in his pockets, and smiled at the sight of brass buttons. “Where’s the man that done that?” inquired the officer, excitedly. “Don’t you figure out that I might have had something to do with it?” said Soapy, not without sarcasm, but friendly, as one greets good fortune. The policeman’s mind refused to accept Soapy even as a clue. Men who smash windows do not remain to parley with the law’s minions. They take to their heels. The policeman saw a man halfway down the block running to catch a car. With drawn club he joined in the pursuit. Soapy, with disgust in his heart, loafed along, twice unsuccessful. On the opposite side of the street was a restaurant of no great pretensions. It catered to large appetites and modest purses. Its crockery and atmosphere were thick; its soup and napery thin. Into this place Soapy took his accusive shoes and telltale trousers without challenge. At a table he sat and consumed beefsteak, flapjacks, doughnuts and pie. And then to the waiter he betrayed the fact that the minutest coin and himself were strangers. “Now, get busy and call a cop,” said Soapy. “And don’t keep a gentleman waiting.” “No cops for you,” said the waiter, with a voice like butter cakes and an eye like the cherry in a Manhattan cocktail. “Hey, Con!” Neatly upon his left ear on the callous pavement two waiters pitched Soapy. He arose joint by joint, as a carpenter’s rule opens, and beat the dust from his clothes. Arrest seemed but a rosy dream. The Island seemed very far away. A policeman who stood before a drug store two doors away laughed and walked down the street. Five blocks Soapy traveled before his courage permitted him to woo capture again. This time the opportunity presented what he fatuously termed to himself a “cinch”. A young woman of a modest and pleasing guise was standing before a show window gazing with sprightly interest at its display of shaving mugs and inkstands, and two yards form the window a large policeman of severe demeanor leaned against a water plug. It was Soapy’s design to assume the role of the despicable and execrated “masher”. The refined and elegant appearance of his victim and the contiguity of the conscientious cop encouraged him to believe that he would soon feel the pleasant official clutch upon his arm that would insure his winter quarters on the right little, tight little isle. Soapy straightened the lady missionary’s ready-made tie, dragged his shrinking cuffs into the open, set his hat at a killing cant and sidled toward the young woman. He made eyes at her, was taken with sudden coughs and “hems”, smiled, smirked and went brazenly through the impudent and contemptible litany of the “masher”. With half an eye Soapy saw that the policeman was watching him fixedly. The young woman moved away a few steps, and again bestowed her absorbed attention upon the shaving mugs. Soapy followed, boldly stepping to her side, raised his hat and said: �Содержание “Ah there, Bedelia! Don’t you want to come and play in my yard?” The policeman was still looking. The persecuted young woman had but to beckon a finger and Soapy would be practically en route for his insular haven. Already he imagined he could feel the cozy warmth of the station house. The young woman faced him and, stretching out a hand, caught Soapy’s coat sleeve. “Sure, Mike,” she said joyfully, “if you’ll blow me to a pail of suds. I’d have spoke to you sooner, but the cop was watching.” With the young woman playing the clinging ivy to his oak Soapy walked past the policeman overcome with gloom. He seemed doomed to liberty. At the next corner he shook off his companion and ran. He halted in the district where by night are found the lightest streets, hearts, vows and librettos. Women in furs and men in greatcoats moved gaily in the wintry air. A sudden fear seized Soapy that some dreadful enchantment had rendered him immune to arrest. The thought brought a little of panic upon it, and when he came upon another policeman lounging grandly in front of a transplendent theatre he caught at the immediate straw of “disorderly conduct”. On the sidewalk Soapy began to yell drunken gibberish at the top of his harsh voice. He danced, howled, raved, and otherwise disturbed the welkin. The policeman twirled his club, turned his back to Soapy and remarked to a citizen. “ ‘Tis one of them Yale lads celebratin’ the goose egg they give to the Hartford College. Noisy; but no harm. We’ve instructions to lave them be.” Disconsolate, Soapy ceased his unavailing racket. Would never a policeman lay hands on him? In his fancy the Island seemed an unattainable Arcadia. He buttoned his thin coat against the chilling wind. In a cigar store he saw a well-dressed man lighting a cigar at a swinging light. His silk umbrella he had set by the door on entering. Soapy stepped inside, secured the umbrella and sauntered off with it slowly. The man at the cigar light followed hastily. “My umbrella,” he said, sternly. “Oh, is it?” sneered Soapy, adding insult to petit larceny. “Wee, why don’t you call a policeman? I took it. Your umbrella! Why don’t you call a cop? There stands one on the corner.” The umbrella owner slowed his steps. Soapy did likewise, with a presentiment that luck would again run against him. The policeman looked at the two curiously. “Of course,” said the umbrella man – “that is – well, you know how these mistakes occur – I – if it’s your umbrella I hope you’ll excuse me – I picked it up this morning in a restaurant – If you recognize it as yours, why – I hope you’ll – ” “Of course it’s mine,” said Soapy, viciously. The ex-umbrella man retreated. The policeman hurried to assist a tall blonde in an opera cloak across the street in front of a street car that was approaching two blocks away. Soapy walked eastward through a street damaged by improvements. He hurled the umbrella �Содержание wrathfully into an excavation. He muttered against the men who wear helmets and carry clubs. Because he wanted to fall into their clutches, they seemed to regard him as a king who could do no wrong. At length Soapy reached one of the avenues to the east where the glitter and turmoil was but faint. He set his face down this toward Madison Square, for the homing instinct survives even when the home is a park bench. But on an unusually quiet corner Soapy came to a standstill. Here was an old church, quaint and rambling and gabled. Through one violet stained window a soft light glowed, where, no doubt, the organist loitered over the keys, making sure of his mastery of the coming Sabbath anthem. For there drifted out to Soapy’s ears sweet music that caught and held him transfixed against the convolutions of the iron fence. The moon was above, lustrous and serene; vehicles and pedestrians were few; sparrows twittered sleepily in the eaves – for a little while the scene might have been a country churchyard. And the anthem that the organist played cemented Soapy to the iron fence, for he had known it well in the days when his life contained such things as mothers and roses and ambitions and friends and immaculate thoughts and collars. The conjunction of Soapy’s receptive state of mind and the influences about the old church wrought a sudden and wonderful change in his soul. He viewed with swift horror the pit into which he had tumbled, the degraded days, unworthy desires, dead hopes, wrecked faculties and base motives that made up his existence. And also in a moment his heart responded thrillingly to this novel mood. An instantaneous and strong impulse moved him to battle with his desperate fate. He would pull himself out of the mire; he would make a man of himself again; he would conquer the evil that had taken possession of him. There was time; he was comparatively young yet: he would resurrect his old eager ambitions and pursue them without faltering. Those solemn but sweet organ notes had set up a revolution in him. Tomorrow he would go into the roaring downtown district and find work. A fur importer had once offered him a place as driver. He would find him tomorrow and ask for the position. He would be somebody in the world. He would – Soapy felt a hand laid on his arm. He looked quickly around into the broad face of a policeman. “What are you doin’ here?” asked the officer. “Nothin’,” said Soapy. “Then come along,” said the policeman. “Three months on the Island,” said the Magistrate in the Police Court the next morning. Questions and Tasks for the Analysis of the Story 1. Speak about O. Henry and his literary art: the story of his life, his literary career, his favorite themes, his favorite characters. 2. Where is the scene laid? Give a short summary of what exactly happens in the story. 3. Is this a typical or an atypical O. Henry story? Give reasons for your opinion. 4. In what key is the story written? Is the mood of the story the same or does it change as the �Содержание plot develops? Point out the main stages in the development of the plot. What is the main means of creating a humorous effect in the story? Pay attention to the mixture of styles, which finds its reflection in the choice of words, the choice of syntactic constructions and the peculiarity of his phrases. 5. Speak about the main character of the story. Comment on his name, his appearance, his lifestyle, his thoughts, and his wishes. Is he presented as an ordinary primitive tramp or as a philosopher? Follow Soapy’s desperate attempts to provide himself a shelter. Is he pleased to be sent to the Island? What is the author’s attitude to his character? What devices does the author use to portray the character? Quote the text to support your opinion. 6. Comment on the title and the message of the story. 7. Summarize your observations of the style and the language of the story. Point out the stylistic devices that the author favours. �Содержание Ernest Hemingway (1899–1961) Ernest Miller Hemingway (1899–1961) was an American author and journalist. His distinctive writing style, characterized by economy and understatement, influenced 20th-century fiction, as did his life of adventure and his public image. He produced most of his work between the mid-1920s and the mid-1950s. He won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1954. Many of his works are classics of American literature. He published seven novels, six short story collections, and two non-fiction works during his lifetime; a further three novels, four collections of short stories, and three non-fiction works were published posthumously. Hemingway was born and raised in Oak Park, Illinois. After leaving high school he worked for a few months as a reporter for The Kansas City Star, before leaving for the Italian front to become an ambulance driver during World War I, which became the basis for his novel A Farewell to Arms. In 1918, he was seriously wounded and returned home within the year. In 1922 Hemingway married Hadley Richardson, the first of his four wives, and the couple moved to Paris, where he worked as a foreign correspondent. During his time there he met and was influenced by modernist writers and artists of the 1920s expatriate community known as the “Lost Generation”. His first novel, “The Sun Also Rises”, was published in 1926. After divorcing Hadley Richardson in 1927 Hemingway married Pauline Pfeiffer; they divorced following Hemingway’s return from covering the Spanish Civil War, after which he wrote “For Whom the Bell Tolls”. Martha Gellhorn became his third wife in 1940; they split when he met Mary Welsh in London during World War II. During the war he was present at D-Day and the liberation of Paris. Shortly after the publication of “The Old Man and the Sea” in 1952 Hemingway went on safari to Africa, where he was almost killed in a plane crash that left him in pain or illhealth for much of the rest of his life. Hemingway had permanent residences in Key West, Florida, and Cuba during the 1930s and ’40s, but in 1959 he moved from Cuba to Ketchum, Idaho, where he committed suicide in the summer of 1961. Hemingway’s legacy to American literature is his style. He referred to his style as the iceberg theory: in his writing the facts float above water; the supporting structure and symbolism operate out-of-sight. Writing in “The Art of the Short Story,” he explains: “A few things I have found to be true. If you leave out important things or events that you know about, the story is strengthened. If you leave or skip something because you do not know it, the story will be worthless. The test of any story is how very good the stuff that you, not your editors, omit.” The simplicity of his prose is deceptive. Zoe Trodd believes Hemingway crafted skeletal �Содержание sentences in response to Henry James's observation that World War I had “used up words.” Hemingway offers a “multi-focal” photographic reality. His iceberg theory of omission is the foundation on which he builds. The syntax, which lacks subordinating conjunctions, creates static sentences. The photographic “snapshot” style creates a collage of images. Many types of internal punctuation (colons, semicolons, dashes, parentheses) are omitted in favor of short declarative sentences. The sentences build on each other, as events build to create a sense of the whole. Multiple strands exist in one story; an “embedded text” bridges to a different angle. He also uses other cinematic techniques of “cutting” quickly from one scene to the next; or of “splicing” a scene into another. Intentional omissions allow the reader to fill the gap, as though responding to instructions from the author, and create threedimensional prose. In his literature, and in his personal writing, Hemingway habitually used the word “and” in place of commas. This use of polysyndeton may serve to convey immediacy. Hemingway’s polysyndetonic sentence – or in later works his use of subordinate clauses – uses conjunctions to juxtapose startling visions and images; Jackson Benson compares them to haikus. Many of Hemingway’s followers misinterpreted his lead and frowned upon all expression of emotion; Saul Bellow satirized this style as “Do you have emotions? Strangle them.” However, Hemingway’s intent was not to eliminate emotion, but to portray it more scientifically. Hemingway thought it would be easy, and pointless, to describe emotions; he sculpted collages of images in order to grasp the real thing, the sequence of motion and fact which made the emotion and which would be as valid in a year or in ten years or, with luck and if you stated it purely enough, always. Many writers of his generation were influenced not only by his style but also by his philosophy, his masculinity and his public image. His stories and novels became part of American and world cultural heritage. The extent of Hemingway's influence is seen in the tributes and echoes of his fiction in popular culture. A minor planet, discovered in 1978 by Soviet astronomer Nikolai Stepanovich Chernykh, was named for him (3656 Hemingway); Ray Bradbury wrote The Kilimanjaro Device, with Hemingway transported to the top of Mount Kilimanjaro; the 1993 motion picture Wrestling Ernest Hemingway, about the friendship of two retired men, Irish and Cuban, in a seaside town in Florida, starred Robert Duvall, Richard Harris, Shirley MacLaine, Sandra Bullock, and Piper Laurie. Cat in the Rain There were only two Americans at the hotel. They did not know any of the people they passed on the stairs to their room. Their room was on the second floor facing the sea. It also faced the public garden and the war monument. There were big palms and green benches in the public garden. In the good weather there was always an artist with his easel. Artists liked the way the palms grew and the bright colours of the hotels facing the gardens and the sea. Italians came from a long way off to look up at the war monument. It was made of bronze and glistened in the rain. It was raining. The rain dripped from the palm trees. Water stood in pools on the gravel paths. The sea broke in a long line in the rain and slipped back down the beach to come up and break again in a long line in the rain. The motor-cars were gone from the square by the �Содержание war monument. Across the square in the doorway of the café a waiter stood looking out at the empty square. The American wife stood at the window looking out. Outside right under their window a cat was crouched under one of the dripping green tables. The cat was trying to make herself so compact that she would not be dripped on. “I’m going down and get that kitty,” the American wife said. “I’ll do it,” her husband offered from the bed. “No, I’ll get it. The poor kitty out trying to keep dry under a table.” The husband went on reading, lying propped up with the two pillows at the foot of the bed. “Don’t get wet,” he said. The wife went downstairs and the hotel owner stood up and bowed to her as she passed the office. He was an old man and very tall. “Il piove,” the wife said. She liked the hotelkeeper. “Si, si, Signora, brutto tempo. It’s very bad weather.” He stood behind his desk in the far end of the dim room. The wife liked him. She liked the deadly serious way he received any complaints. She liked his dignity. She liked the way he wanted to serve her. She liked the way he felt about being a hotelkeeper. She liked his old, heavy face and big hands. Liking him she opened the door and looked out. It was raining harder. A man in a rubber cape was crossing the empty square to the café. The cat would be around to the right. Perhaps she could go along under the eaves. As she stood in the doorway an umbrella opened behind her. It was the maid who looked after their room. “You must not get wet,” she smiled, speaking Italian. Of course, the hotelkeeper had sent her. With the maid holding the umbrella over her, she walked along the gravel path until she was under their window. The table was there, washed bright green in the rain, but the cat was gone. She was suddenly disappointed. The maid looked up at her. “Ha perduto qualque cosa, Signora?” “There was a cat,” said the American girl. “A cat?” “Si, il gatto.” “A cat?” the maid laughed. “A cat in the rain?” “Yes,” she said, “under the table.” Then, “Oh, I wanted it so much. I wanted a kitty.” When she talked English the maid’s face tightened. “Come, Signora,” she said. “We must get back inside. You will be wet.” “I suppose so,” said the American girl. They went back along the gravel path and passed in the door. The maid stayed outside to close the umbrella. As the American girl passed the office, the padrone bowed from his desk. Something felt very small and tight inside the girl. The padrone made her feel very small and at �Содержание the same time really important. She had a momentary feeling of being of supreme importance. She went on up the stairs. She opened the door of the room. George was on the bed, reading. “Did you get the cat?” he asked, putting the book down. “It was gone.” “Wonder where it went to?” he said, resting his eyes from reading. She sat down on the bed. “I wanted it so much,” she said. “I don’t know why I wanted it so mush. I wanted that poor kitty. It isn’t any fun to be a poor kitty out in the rain!” George was reading again. She went over and sat in front of the mirror of the dressing-table looking at herself with the hand glass. She studied her profile, first one side and then the other. Then she studied the back of her head and her neck. “Don’t you think it would be a good idea if I let my hair grow out?” she asked, looking at her profile again. George looked up and saw the back of her neck, clipped close like a boy’s. “I like it the way it is.” “I get so tired of it,” she said. “I get so tired of looking like a boy.” George shifted his position in the bed. He hadn’t looked away from her since she started to speak. “You look pretty darn nice,” he said. She laid the mirror down on the dresser and went over to the widow and looked out. It was getting dark. “I want to pull my hair back tight and smooth and make a big knot at the back that I can feel,” she said. “I want to have a kitty to sit on my lap and purr when I stroke her.” “Yeah?” George said from the bed. “And I want to eat at a table with my own silver and I want candles. And I want it to be spring and I want to brush my hair out in front of a mirror and I want a kitty and I want some new clothes.” “Oh, shut up and get something to read,” George said. He was reading again. His wife was looking out of the widow. It was quite dark now and still raining in the palm trees. “Anyway, I want a cat,” she said, “I want a cat. I want a cat now. If I can’t have long hair or any fun, I can have a cat.” George was not listening. He was reading his book. His wife looked out of the window where the light had come on in the square. Someone knocked at the door. “Avanti,” George said. He looked up from his book. In the doorway stood the maid. She held a big tortoiseshell cat pressed tight against her and �Содержание swung down against her body. “Excuse me,” she said, “the padrone asked me to bring this for the Signora.” Questions and Tasks for the Analysis of the Story 1. Speak about Ernest Hemingway: the most important facts from his life, his literary career, the peculiarities of his literary style, his artistic credo. What technique of writing is associated with the name of Ernest Hemingway? 2. What is your first impression of the story? What exactly happens in the story? What do you think about the plot? Is it absorbing, intricate or very simple, dynamic or somewhat static? Is there any connection between the character of the plot and the message of the story? 3. Analyze the first paragraph of the story. What do you think of the description contained in it? Do you find it emotional or rather matter of-fact? Comment on the words used in the description: are they literary or every day? Does the author resort to the ample use of epithets or metaphors which are usually employed in description? Comment on the length of sentences. Are most of them long or short? Do the structures of sentences vary much or are they mostly identical? What effect does it produce? Critics often say that Hemingway’s prose is very visual, that it has a kind of cinematographic effect. Do you agree? If you do, how is this effect created? How many times is the rain mentioned and what is the role of the rain in the story? Does it create a certain mood? If it does what is the mood it creates? What does the rain symbolize? 4. Speak about the central character of the story, the American wife. What kind of person is she? Do we learn much about her appearance, her thoughts? Through whose eyes are the events perceived? Find elements in the narration that support your point of view. Is their marriage happy? What exactly does she want to feel happy? Count up the number of times the verb “want” is used in the story and comment on the effect of this repetition. What other words are repeated in the story and how do they help us to perceive the message? Why does she want the cat so badly? What does the cat mean to her? The cat is a very complex symbol, isn’t it? What does it include? 5. Sum up the character of the husband. Does he act or speak much in the story? What is he doing all the time? Why is he reading throughout the whole story? Is he really engrossed in reading or is it a kind of shelter for him? Does he care much about his wife’s problems? Does he try to understand her and help her or is he irritated? Find facts from the story to support your opinion. Pay special attention to the shift in the narration in this part of the text. Through whose eyes are the events presented in the part devoted to her husband? 6. Comment on the minor characters of the story: the hotel keeper and the maid. What is their role in the development of the plot? Why does the American wife like the hotel keeper? Does he understand what she really wants? How does he try to help her? 7. Comment on the outcome of the story. Is the end expected or unexpected? If you consider the end unexpected, does it have anything in common with the unexpected ends in O. Henry’s stories or is it different? What does the tortoise-shell cat brought by the maid symbolize? 8. Speak about the message and the title of the story. Is the message perceived from what is written or mostly from the undercurrent (from what remains unsaid)? Sum up your �Содержание observations about Hemingway’s style and give your impression of it. Stories for Self-Guided Analysis Stories for Self-Guided Analysis Katherine Mansfield. Honeymoon Kate Chopin. The Story of an Hour Ray Bradbury. In a Season of Calm Weather Peter Mayle. The Genetic Effects of Two Thousand Years of Foie Gras �Содержание Stories for Self-Guided Analysis Stories for Self-Guided Analysis Katherine Mansfield. Honeymoon Kate Chopin. The Story of an Hour Ray Bradbury. In a Season of Calm Weather Peter Mayle. The Genetic Effects of Two Thousand Years of Foie Gras �Содержание Katherine Mans ield. Honeymoon And when they came out of the lace shop there was their own driver and the cab they called their own cab waiting for them under a plane tree. What luck! Wasn’t it luck? Fanny pressed her husband’s arm. These things seemed always to be happening to them ever since they – came abroad. Didn’t he think so too? But George stood on the pavement edge, lifted his stick, and gave a loud “Hi!” Fanny sometimes felt a little uncomfortable about the way George summoned cabs, but the drivers didn’t seem to mind, so it must have been all right. Fat, goodnatured, and smiling, they stuffed away the little newspaper they were reading, whipped the cotton cover off the horse, and were ready to obey. “I say,” George said as he helped Fanny in, “suppose we go and have tea at the place where the lobsters grow. Would you like to?” “Most awfully,” said Fanny fervently, as she leaned back wondering why the way George put things made them sound so very nice. “R-right, bien.” He was beside her. “Allay,” he cried gaily, and off they went. Off they went, spanking along lightly, under the green and gold shade of the plane trees, through the small streets that smelled of lemons and fresh coffee, past the fountain square where women, with water-pots lifted, stopped talking to gaze after them, round the corner past the cafe, with its pink and white umbrellas, green tables, and blue siphons, and so to the sea front. There a wind, light, warm, came flowing over the boundless sea. It touched George, and Fanny it seemed to linger over while they gazed at the dazzling water. And George said, “Jolly, isn’t it?” And Fanny, looking dreamy, said, as she said at least twenty times a day since they – came abroad: “Isn’t it extraordinary to think that here we are quite alone, away from everybody, with nobody to tell us to go home, or to – to order us about except ourselves?” George had long since given up answering “Extraordinary!” As a rule he merely kissed her. But now he caught hold of her hand, stuffed it into his pocket, pressed her fingers, and said, “I used to keep a white mouse in my pocket when I was a kid.” “Did you?” said Fanny, who was intensely interested in everything George had ever done. “Were you very fond of white mice?” “Fairly,” said George, without conviction. He was looking at something, bobbing out there beyond the bathing steps. Suddenly he almost jumped in his seat. “Fanny!” he cried. “There is a chap out there bathing. Do you see? I’d no idea people had begun. I’ve been missing it all these days.” George glared at the reddened face, the reddened arm, as though he could not look away. “At any rate,” he muttered, “wild horses won’t keep me from going in to-morrow morning.” �Содержание Fanny’s heart sank. She had heard for years of the frightful dangers of the Mediterranean. It was an absolute death-trap. Beautiful, treacherous Mediterranean. There it lay curled before them, it’s white, silky paws touching the stones and gone again… But she’d made up her mind long before she was married that never would she be the kind of woman who interfered with her husband’s pleasures, so all she said was, airily, “I suppose one has to be very up in the currents, doesn’t one?” “Oh, I don’t know,” said George. “People talk an awful lot of rot about the danger.” But now they were passing a high wall on the land side, covered with flowering heliotrope, and Fanny’s little nose lifted. “Oh, George,” she breathed. “The smell! The most divine…” “Topping villa,” said George, “Look, you can see it through the palms.” “Isn’t it rather large?” said Fanny, who somehow could not look at any villa except as a possible habitation for herself and George. “Well, you’d need a crowd of people if you stayed there long,” replied George. “Deadly, otherwise. I say, it is ripping. I wonder who it belongs to”. And he prodded the driver in the back. The lazy, smiling driver, who had no idea, replied, as he always did on these occasions, that it was the property of a wealthy Spanish family. “Masses of Spaniards on this coast,” commented George, leaning back again, and they were silent until, as they rounded a bend, the big bone-white hotel-restaurant came into view. before it there was a small terrace built up against the sea, planted with umbrella palms, set out with tables, and at their approach, from the terrace, from the hotel, waiters came running to receive, to welcome Fanny and George, to cut them off from any possible kind of escape. “Outside?” Oh, but of course they wouldn’t sit outside. The sleek manager, who was marvelously like a fish in a frock-coat, skimmed forward. “Dis way, sir. Dis way, sir. I have a very nice little table,” he gasped. “Just the little table for you, sir, over in de corner. Dis way.” So George, looking most dreadfully bored, and Fanny, trying to look as though she’d spent years of life threading her way through strangers, followed after. “Here you are, sir. Here you will be very nice,” coaxed the manager, taking the vase off the table, and putting it down again as if it were a fresh little bouquet out of the air. But George refused to sit down immediately. He saw through these fellows; he wasn’t going to be done. These chaps were always out to rush you. So he put his hands in his pockets, and said to Fanny, very calmly, “This is right for you? Anywhere else you’d prefer? How about over there? ” And he nodded to a table right over the other side. What it was to be a man of the world! Fanny admired him deeply, but all she wanted to do was to sit down and look like everybody else. �Содержание “I – I like this,” said she. “Right,” said George hastily, and he sat down almost before Fanny, and said quickly, “Tea for two and chocolate éclairs.” “Very good, sir,” said the manager, and his mouth opened and shut as though he was ready for another dive under the water. “You will not’ave toasts to start with? We’ave very nice toasts, sir.” “No,” said George shortly. “You don’t want toast, do you, Fanny?” “Oh no, thank you, George,” said Fanny, praying the manager would go. “Or perhaps de lady might like to look at de live lobsters in de tank while the tea is coming?” And he grimaced and smirked and flicked his serviette like a fin. George’s face grew stony. He said “No” again, and Fanny bent over the table, unbuttoning her gloves. When she looked up the man was gone. George took off his hat, tossed it on a chair, and pressed back his hair. “Thank God,” said he, “that chap’s gone. These foreign fellows bore me stiff. The only way to get rid of them is simply to shut up as you saw I did. Thank heaven!” sighed George again with so much emotion that if it hadn’t been ridiculous Fanny might have imagined that he had been as frightened of the manager as she. As it was she felt a rush of love for George. His hands were on the table, brown, large hands that she knew so well. She longed to take one of them and squeeze it hard. But, to her astonishment, George did just that thing. Leaning across the table, he put his hand over hers, and said, without looking at her, “Fanny, darling Fanny!” “Oh, George!” It was in that heavenly moment that Fanny heard a twing-twing-tootle-tootle, and a light strumming. There’s going to be music, she thought, but the music didn’t matter just then. Nothing mattered except love. Faintly smiling she gazed into that faintly smiling face, and the filling was so blissful that she felt inclined to say to George, “Let us stay here – where we are – at this little table. It’s perfect, and the sea is perfect. Let us stay.” But instead her eyes grew serious. “Darling,” said Fanny. “I want to ask you something fearfully important. Promise me you’ll answer. Promise.” “I promise,” said George, too solemn to be quite as serious as she. “It’s this,” Fanny paused a moment, looked down, looked up again. “Do you feel,” she said softly, “that you really know me now? But really, really know me?” It was too much for George. Know his Fanny? He gave a broad, childish grin. “I should jolly well think I do,” he said emphatically. “Why, what's up?” Fanny felt he hadn't quite understood. She went on quickly: “What I mean is this. So often people, even when they love each other, don't seem to – to – it’s so hard to say – know each other perfectly. They don't seem to want to- And I think that's awful. They misunderstand each other about the most important things of all.” Fanny looked horrified. “George, we couldn't do that, could we? We never could.” �Содержание “Couldn't be done,” laughed George, and he was just going to tell her how much he liked her little nose, when the waiter arrived with the tea and the band struck up. It was a flute, a guitar, and a violin, and it played so gaily that Fanny felt if she wasn't careful even the cups and saucers might grow little wings and fly away. George absorbed three chocolate éclairs, Fanny two. The funny-tasting tea – “Lobster in the kettle,” shouted George above the music – was nice all the same, and when the tray was pushed aside and George was smoking, Fanny felt bold enough to look at the other people. But it was the band grouped under one of the dark trees that fascinated her most. The fat man stroking the guitar was like a picture. The dark man playing the flute kept raising his eyebrows as though he was astonished at the sounds that came from it. The fiddler was in shadow. The music stopped as suddenly as it had begun. It was then she noticed a tall old man with white hair standing beside the musicians. Strange she hadn’t noticed him before. He wore a very high, glazed collar, a coat green at the seams, and shamefully shabby button boots. Was he another manager? He did not look like a manager, and yet he stood there gazing over the tables as though thinking of something different and far away from all this. Who could he be? Presently, as Fanny watched him, he touched the points of his collar with his fingers, coughed slightly, and half turned to the band. It began to play again. Something boisterous, reckless, full of fire, full of passion, was tossed into the air, was tossed to that quiet figure, which clasped its hands, and still with that far-away look, began to sing. “Good Lord!” said George. It seemed that everybody was equally astonished. Even the little children eating ices stared, with their spoons in the air... Nothing was heard except a thin, faint voice, the memory of a voice singing something in Spanish. It wavered, beat on, touched the high notes, fell again, seemed to implore, to entreat, to beg for something, and then the tune changed, and it was resigned, it bowed down, it knew it was denied. Almost before the end a little child gave a squeak of laughter, but everybody was smiling – мexcept Fanny and George. Is life like this too? thought Fanny. There are people like this. There is suffering. And she looked at that gorgeous sea, lapping the land as though it loved it, and the sky, bright with the brightness before evening. Had she and George the right to be so happy? Wasn’t it cruel? There must be something else in life, which made all these things possible. What was it? She turned to George. But George had been feeling differently from Fanny. The poor old boy’s voice was funny in a way, but, God, how it made you realise what a terrific thing it was to be at the beginning of everything, as they were, he and Fanny! George, too, gazed at the bright, breathing water, and his lips opened as if he could drink it. How fine it was! There was nothing like the sea for making a chap feel fit. And there sat Fanny, his Fanny, leaning forward, breathing so gently. “Fanny!” George called to her. As she turned to him something in her soft, wondering look made George feel that for two pins he would jump over the table and carry her off. �Содержание “I say,” said George rapidly, “let’s go, shall we? Let’s go back to the hotel. Come. Do, Fanny darling. Let’s go now.” The band began to play. “Oh, God!” almost groaned George. “Let's go before the old codger begins squawking again.” And a moment later they were gone. �Содержание Kate Chopin. The Story of an Hour Knowing that Mrs. Mallard was afflicted with a heart trouble, great care was taken to break to her as gently as possible the news of her husband’s death. It was her sister Josephine who told her, in broken sentences; veiled hints that revealed in half concealing. Her husband’s friend Richards was there, too, near her. It was he who had been in the newspaper office when intelligence of the railroad disaster was received, with Brently Mallard’s name leading the list of “killed”. He had only taken the time to assure himself of its truth by a second telegram, and had hastened to forestall any less careful, less tender friend in bearing the sad message. She did not hear the story as many women have heard the same, with a paralyzed inability to accept its significance. She wept at once, with sudden, wild abandonment, in her sister’s arms. When the storm of grief had spent itself she went away to her room alone. She would have no one follow her. There stood, facing the open window, a comfortable, roomy armchair. Into this she sank, pressed down by a physical exhaustion that haunted her body and seemed to reach into her soul. She could see in the open square before her house the tops of trees that were all aquiver with the new spring life. The delicious breath of rain was in the air. In the street below a peddler was crying his wares. The notes of a distant song which some one was singing reached her faintly, and countless sparrows were twittering in the eaves. There were patches of blue sky showing here and there through the clouds that had met and piled one above the other in the west facing her window. She sat with her head thrown back upon the cushion of the chair, quite motionless, except when a sob came up into her throat and shook her, as a child who has cried itself to sleep continues to sob in its dreams. She was young, with a fair, calm face, whose lines bespoke repression and even a certain strength. But now there was a dull stare in her eyes, whose gaze was fixed away off yonder on one of those patches of blue sky. It was not a glance of reflection, but rather indicated a suspension of intelligent thought. There was something coming to her and she was waiting for it, fearfully. What was it? She did not know; it was too subtle and elusive to name. But she felt it, creeping out of the sky, reaching toward her through the sounds, the scents, the color that filled the air. Now her bosom rose and fell tumultuously. She was beginning to recognize this thing that was approaching to possess her, and she was striving to beat it back with her will – as powerless as her two white slender hands would have been. �Содержание When she abandoned herself a little whispered word escaped her slightly parted lips. She said it over and over under her breath: “free, free, free!” The vacant stare and the look of terror that had followed it went from her eyes. They staed keen and bright. Her pulses beat fast, and the coursing blood warmed and relaxed every inch of her body. She did nit stop to ask if it were or were not a monstrous joy that held her. A clear and exalted perception enabled her to dismiss the suggestion as trivial. She knew that she would weep again when she saw the kind, tender hands folded in death; the face that had never looked save with love upon her, fixed and gray and dead. But she saw beyond that bitter moment a procession of years to come that would belong to her absolutely. And she opened and spread her arms out to them in welcome. There would be no one to live for her during those coming years; she would live for herself. There would be no powerful will bending hers in that blind persistence with which men and women believe they have a right to impose a private will upon a fellow-creature. A kind intention or a cruel intention made the act seem no less a crime, as she looked upon it in that brief moment of illumination. And yet she had loved him – sometimes. Often she had not. What did it matter! What could love, the unsolved mystery, count for in face of this possession of self-assertion which she suddenly recognize as the strongest impulse of her being! “Free! Body and soul free!” she kept whispering. Josephine was kneeling before the closed door with her lips to the keyhole, imploring for admission. “Louise, open the door! I beg; open the door – you will make yourself ill. What are you doing, Louise? For heaven’s sake open the door.” “Go away. I am not making myself ill.” No; she was drinking in a very elixir of life through that open window. Her fancy was running riot along those days ahead of her. Spring days, and summer days, and all sorts of days that would be her own. She breathed a quick prayer that life might be long. It was only yesterday she had thought with a shudder that life might be long. She arose at length and opened the door to her sister’s importunities. There was a feverish triumph in her eyes, and she carried herself unwittingly like a goddess of Victory. She clasped her sister’s waist, and together they descended the stairs. Richards stood waiting for them at the bottom. Some one was opening the front door with a latchkey. It was Brently Mallard who entered, a little travel-stained, composedly carrying his grip-sack and umbrella. He had been far from the scene of accident, and did not even know there had been one. He stood amazed at Josephine’s piercing cry; at Richards’ quick motion to screen him from the view of his wife. But Richards was too late. When the doctors came they said she had died of heart disease – of joy that kills. �Содержание Ray Bradbury. In a Season of Calm Weather George and Alice Smith detrained at Biarritz one summer noon and in an hour had run through their hotel onto the beach into the ocean and back out to bake upon the sand. George Smith was a man who loved art more than life itself. “There…” George Smith sighed. Another ounce of perspiration tricked down his chest. His mouth moved, forming a name. “George?” His wife loomed over him. “I know what you’ve been thinking. I can read your lips.” He lay perfectly still, waiting. “And?” “Picasso,” she said. “Please,” she said. “Relax. I know you heard the rumor this morning, but you should see your eyes – your tic is back. All right, Picasso is here, down the coast a few miles away, visiting friends in some small fishing town. But you must forget it or our vacation is ruined.” “I wish I’d never heard the rumor,” he said honestly. “If only,” she said, “you liked other painters.” “Alice,” he said patiently, “how can I explain? Coming down on the train, I thought, good lord, it’s all Picasso country!” But was it really? he wondered. The sky, the land, the people, the flushed pink bricks here – how much was Picasso, how much George Smith staring round the world with wild Picasso eyes? He despaired of answering. “I keep thinking,” he said aloud, “if we saved our money…” “We’ll never have five thousand dollars.” “I know,” he said quietly. “But it’s nice thinking we might bring it off someday. Wouldn’t it be great to just step up to him, say, “Pablo, here’s five thousand! Give us the sea, the sand, that sky, or any old thing you want, we’ll be happy…” After a moment his wife touched his arm. “I think you’d better go in the water now,” she said. “Yes,” he said. “I’d better do just that.” White fire showered up when he cut the water. During the afternoon George Smith came out and went into the ocean. People, with the sun’s decline, their bodies all lobster colors and colors of broiled squash, trudged for their hotels. �Содержание The beach lay deserted for endless mile on mile save for two people. One was George Smith, towel over shoulder. Far along the shore another shorter, square-cut man walked alone in the tranquil weather. He was deeper-tanned, his close-shaven head dyed almost mahogany by the sun, and his eyes were clear and bright as water in his face. The stranger stood alone. Glancing about, he saw his aloneness, saw the waters of the lovely bay, saw the sun sliding down, the late colors of the day, and then, half turning, spied a small wooden object on the sand. It was no more than the slender stick from a lime ice-cream delicacy long since melted away. Smiling, he picked the stick up. With another glance around to reinsure his solitude, the man stooped again and, holding the stick gently, with light sweeps of his hand began to do the one thing in all the world he knew best how to do. He began to draw incredible figures along the sand. He sketched one figure and then moved over and, still looking down, completely focused on his work now, drew a second and a third figure, and after that a fourth and a fifth and a sixth. George Smith, printing the shore line with his feet, gazed here, gazed there, and then saw the man ahead. George Smith, drawing nearer, saw that the man deeply tanned, was bending down. Nearer yet, and it was obvious what the man was up to. George Smith chuckled. Of course, of course… Alone on the beach this man – how old? Sixty-five? Seventy? – was scribbling and doodling away. How the sand flew? How the wild portraits flung themselves out there on the shore! How… George Smith took one more step and stopped, very still. The stranger was drawing and drawing and didn’t seem to sense that anyone stood immediately behind him and the world of his drawings in the sand. By now he was so deeply enchanted with his solitudinous creation that depth bombs set off in the bay might not have stopped his flying hand nor turned him round. George Smith looked down at the sand. After a long while, looking, began to tremble. For there on the flat shore were pictures of Grecian lions and Mediterranean goats and maidens with flesh of sand like powdered gold and satyrs piping on hand-carved horns and children dancing, strewing flowers along and along the beach with lambs gamboling after, and musicians skipping to their harps and lyres and unicorns racing youths toward distant meadows, woodlands, ruined temples and volcanoes. Everything whirled and poised in its own wind and gravity. Now wine was being crushed from under the grape-blooded feet of dancing vintners’ daughters, now steaming seas gave birth to monsters while flowered kites strewed scent on blowing clouds… now… now… now… The artist stopped. George Smith drew back and stood away. �Содержание The artist glanced up, surprised to find someone so near. Then he simply stood there, looking from George Smith to his own creations fling like idle footprints down the way. He smiled at last and shrugged as if to say, “Look what I’ve done; see what a child? You will forgive me, won’t you? One day or another we are all fools… You too, perhaps? So allow an old fool this, eh? Good! Good!” But George Smith could only look at the little man with the sun-dark skin and the clear sharp eyes and say the man’s name once, in a whisper, to himself. They stood thus for perhaps another five seconds. George Smith staring at the sand-frieze, and the artist watching George Smith with amused curiosity. George Smith opened his mouth, closed it, put out his hand, took it back. He stepped forward the pictures, stepped away. Then he moved along the line of figures, like a man viewing a precious series of marbles cast up from some ancient ruin on the shore. His eyes didn’t blink, his hand wanted to touch but didn’t dare to touch. He wanted to run but didn’t run. He looked suddenly at the hotel. Run, yes! Run! What? Grab a shovel, dig, excavate, save a chunk of this all-too-crumbling sand? Find a repairman, race him back here with plaster to cast a mold of some small fragile part of these? No, no. Silly, silly. Or…? His eyes flicked to his hotel window. The camera! Run, get it, get back, and hurry along the shore, clicking, changing film, clicking, until… George Smith whirled to face the sun. It burned faintly on his face, his eyes were two small fires from it. The sun was half underwater, and as he watched it sank the rest of the way in a matter of seconds. The artist had drawn nearer and now was gazing into George Smith’s face with great friendliness, as if he were guessing every thought. Now he was bowing his head in a little bow. Now the ice-cream stick had fallen casually from his fingers. Now he was saying good night, good night. Now he was gone, walking back down the beach toward the south. George Smith stood looking after him. After a full minute he did the only thing he could possibly do. He started at the beginning of the fantastic frieze of satyrs and fauns and winedipped maidens and prancing unicorns and piping youths and he walked slowly along the shore. He walked a long way, looking down at the free-running bacchanal. And when he came to the end of the animals and men he turned around and started back in the other direction, just starting down as if he had lost something and did not quite know where to find it. he kept on doing this until there was no more light in the sky or on the sand to see by. He sat down at the supper table. “You’re late,” said his wife. “I just had to come down alone. I’m ravenous.” “That’s all right,” he said. “Anything interesting happen on your walk?” she asked. “No,” he said. �Содержание “You look funny; George, you didn’t swim out too far, did you, and almost drown? I can tell by your face. You did swim out too far, didn’t you?” “Yes,” he said. “Well,” she said, watching him closely. “Don’t ever do that again. Now – what’ll you have?” He picked up the menu and started to read it and stopped suddenly. “What’s wrong?” asked his wife. He turned his head and shut his eyes for a moment. “Listen.’ “I don’t hear anything,” she said. “Don’t you?” “No. What is it?” “Just the tide,” he said after a while, sitting there, his eyes still shut. “Just the tide coming in.” �Содержание Peter Mayle. The Genetic Effects of Two Thousand Years of Foie Gras (an extract) Old age is unlikely to be a keenly anticipated period in anybody's life, and no amount of euphemistic camouflage by the senior-citizen lobby can make it any more attractive than a longawaited bill that finally arrives. Even so, it seems to me that growing old in Provence is not without its share of consolations. Some are mental, others are physical; one you can actually take to the bank. Let us say you have retired, and that your main asset is your house. It suits you, and you have every intention of living in it until you make your final public appearance in the obituary columns. But the expenses of old age – and there's always something: the Ferrari for your grandson, the services of a live-in chef, the ruinous price of vintage wines – will inevitably increase every year, and there comes a moment when a windfall might be very welcome. This may be the appropriate time to consider selling your house under that particular French arrangement which is called en viager. It's a gamble. You sell the house at a price below the full market value, but with yourself included as a fixture, having the right to continue in residence for the rest of your life. For you, it is like having your cake and living in it; for the buyer, it is a chance to acquire property at a discount – always providing that you, the ancient proprietor, have the good grace not to hang around for too long and make a lingering inconvenience of yourself. Some people find this system morbid. The French, always very practical in matters of money, see it as a chance for both buyer and seller to profit from natural causes. But the gamble can sometimes backfire, as it did not long ago in the town of Aries, itself a monument to old age. Founded before Christ and noted for its pretty women, Aries was until 1997 the home of Madame Jeanne Calment. Her story is a testament to the bracing air of Provence and a warning to all property speculators. She was born in 1875, and had met Van Gogh when she was a girl. At the age of 90, she decided to sell her apartment en viager to a local lawyer, a mere sprig in his forties, who had every reason to think he was making an impeccably sound investment. But Calment lived on. And on. And on. She treated her skin with olive oil, ate almost a kilo of chocolate a week, rode a bicycle until she was 100, and gave up smoking when she was 117. According to official records, she was the oldest person in the world when she eventually died at the age of 122. As for the unfortunate lawyer, he had died the previous year, aged 77. Calment, obviously, was an exception, one of those blips that spoil the symmetry of actuarial statistics. But while her accumulation of years was quite extraordinary, it would not surprise me if her record was eventually broken by one of the lively octogenarians I see every week – the antiques dealers who predate some of their stock, the elderly ladies who elbow you aside in the epicene with the vigor of young girls, those gnarled but stately figures muttering words of encouragement to the tomatoes in their vegetable gardens. What is it about Provence that sustains them? What is their secret? �Содержание For several years, we lived near a family whose oldest member, known as Pepe, was a daily fascination to me. A small, lean man, invariably dressed in jacket and trousers of washed-out blue and a flat cap that never left his head, he would take his promenade along the road before coming up our drive to inspect the vines. He liked it best when there were people working in the long, green alleys-weeding, trimming overlong shoots, distributing the ration of sulfate – because then he could lean on his stick and supervise. He was generous with his advice, which, as he often reminded his captive audience, was the result of more than eighty years’ experience. If anyone had the impertinence and temerity to disagree with him on matters of wine or weather, he would reach back into his memory and produce some dusty scrap of evidence from the past to prove that he was right. “Of course,” he once said, “you wouldn’t remember the summer of 1947. Hailstones in August, big as quails’ eggs. The vines never recovered.” That kind of remark was usually enough to put a stop to any loose talk about conditions being perfect for a vintage year. Optimism and nature don't mix, he used to say. After an hour or so, having satisfied himself that the vineyard was being properly attended to, he would walk back down our drive, along the road, and into his daughter-in-law’s kitchen, no doubt to supervise the preparation of the midday meal. I believe he was a contented man. The lines and wrinkles of his face went upward, as though a smile were on the way. (It often arrived, more gum than teeth, but no less delightful for that.) I never saw him agitated or upset. He was mildly critical of some modern novelties, such as noisy motorcycles, but delighted with others, particularly his large television set, which enabled him to indulge his weakness for old American soap operas. He died when he was ready, somewhere in his nineties, his passing marked by an affectionate village funeral. There are others, plenty of others, like him. You see them moving, often quite briskly and always with great deliberation, to take up their seats in the cafe for a mid-morning nip of wine or pastis. You see them perched, like a row of amiable buzzards, on a wooden bench by the war memorial in the village place, their hands with swollen brown knuckles clasped over the tops of their sticks; or sitting on chairs in the shade outside their front doors, their eyes flickering up and down the street, missing nothing. By today’s standards, they have had hard lives, working the land with little to show for their efforts but subsistence. No skiing trips, no winter breaks in the Caribbean, no golf, no tennis, no second homes, no new cars every three years, nothing of what is endlessly referred to as the good life. But there they are, spry, happy, and apparently indestructible. There are too many of them to be dismissed as exceptions, and whenever I see them I'm tempted to ask them to explain their longevity. Nine times out of ten, the only answer would be a shrug, and so I have been left to come to my own unreliable conclusions. �Содержание Their generation seems to have escaped the modern affliction of stress, which may be a result of having spent their working lives coping with nature rather than with a capricious boss. Not that nature – with its storms, forest fires, and crop diseases – is either reliable or forgiving as an employer. But at least it's free from personal malice and the pressure of office politics, and it has no favorites. The setback of a bad year is shared among neighbors, and there’s nothing to be done about it except hope for better times to come. Working with (or fighting against) nature teaches a man to be philosophical, and even allows him to derive a certain perverse enjoyment from complaining. Anyone who has lived among farmers will know the relish with which they discuss misfortune, even their own. They’re as bad as insurance agents. There must also be something reassuring about working to the fixed and predictable rhythm of the seasons, knowing that spring and early summer and the harvest season will be busy; knowing that winter will be slow and quiet. It is a pattern of life that would probably drive most corporate executives – seething with impatience and ambition – into an early grave. But not all. I have a friend who, like myself, is a refugee from the advertising business. Some years ago, he moved to the Luberon, where he now makes wine for a living. Instead of the big glossy car and matching chauffeur, he drives to work on a tractor. His problems are no longer with fractious clients but with the weather and the drifting bands of grape-pickers who come to the vineyards for the vendange. He has learned to do without what the French grandly call his entourage of secretaries and personal assistants. He has some difficulty remembering when he last wore a tie. He works long hours – longer than he ever used to in Paris – and makes less money. But he feels better, sleeps more soundly, and has a genuine pride in his work. Another contented man. The day may come when he will want to join the ranks of what he calls the living antiques who spin out the days in the village cafe. In the meantime, he leads a life of sustained physical activity, and this must be an important ingredient in the recipe for ripe old age. The human body, so we are told by men of science (who spend most of their time sitting down), is a machine that thrives on use. When left idle, muscles atrophy, and other working parts of the system deteriorate more rapidly than they would if subjected to regular exercise. The urban solution is the jog and the gym. A more primitive alternative is the kind of nianual labor that comes with country life, the rural aerobics necessary for existence. Bending and stretching to prune, lifting and piling sacks of fertilizer, cutting brush, clearing ditches, stacking logs – these are unglamorous chores, but wonderful exercise. A day of this produces an epic crop of blisters and excruciating stiffness. A month rewards you with a feeling of well-being and a distinct looseness of the waistband. A lifetime works wonders. TASK. Read the following extracts and try to identify the authors. 1. Exactly when the ball began Leila would have found it hard to say. Perhaps her first real partner was the cab. It did not matter that she shared the cab with: the Sheridan girls and their brother. She sat back in her own little corner of it, and the bolster on which her hand rested felt like the sleeve of an unknown young man’s dress suit; and away they bowled, past waltzing lamp-posts and houses and fences and trees, �Содержание “Have you really never been to a ball before, Leila? But, my child, how too weird _” cried the Sheridan girls. “Our nearest neighbour was fifteen miles,” said Leila softly, gently opening and shutting her fan. Oh dear, how hard it was to be indifferent like others! She tried not to smile too much; she tried not to care. But every single thing was so new and exciting... Meg’s tuberoses, Jose’s long loop of amber, Laura’s little dark head, pushing above her white fur like a flower through snow. She would remember for ever. It even gave her a pang to see her cousin Laurie throw away the wisps of tissue paper he pulled from the fastenings of his new gloves. She would like to have kept those wisps as a keepsake, as a remembrance. Laurie leaned forward and put his hand on Laura’s knee. “Look here, darling,” he said. “The third and the ninth as usual. Twig?” Oh, how marvelous to have a brother! In her excitement Leila felt that if there had been time, if it hadn’t been impossible, she couldn't have helped crying because she was an only child and no brother had ever said “Twig?” to her; no sister would ever say, as Meg said to Jose that moment, “I’ve never known your hair go up more successfully than it has tonight!” But, of course, there was no time. They were at the drill hall already; there were cabs in front, of them and cabs behind. The road was bright on other sode with moving fan-like lights, and on the pavement gay couples seemed to float through the air; little satin shoes chased each other like birds. 2. Mr. Holohan, assistant secretary of the Eire Abu Society, had been walking up and down Doublin for nearly a month, with his hands and pockets full of dirty pieces of paper, arranging about the series of concerts. He had a game leg and for this his friends called him Hoppy Hollohan. He Walked up and down constantly, stood by the hour at street corners and made notes; but in the end it was Mrs. Kearney who arranged everything. Miss Devlin had become Mrs. Kearney out of spite. She had been educated in a high-class convent, where she had learned French and music. As she was naturally pale and unbending in manner she made few friends at school. When she came to the age of marriage she was sent out to many houses, where her playing and ivory manners were much admired. She sat amid the chilly circle of her accomplishments, waiting for some suitor to brave it and offer her a brilliant life. But the young men whom she met were ordinary and she gave them no encouragement, trying to console her romantic desires by eating a great deal of Turkish Delight in secret. However, when she drew near the limit and her friends began to loose their tongues about her, she silenced them by marrying Mr. Kearney, who was a bookmaker on Ormond Quay. �Содержание He was much older than she. His conversation, which was serious, took place at intervals in his great brown beard. After the first year of married life, Mrs. Kearnet perceived that such a man would wear better that a romantic person, but she never put her own romantic ideas away. He was sober, thrifty and pious; he went to the altar every first Friday, sometimes with her, oftener by himself. But she never weakened in her religion and was a good wife to him. 3. Charm is the ultimate weapon, the supreme seduction, against which there are few defences. If you’ve got it you need almost nothing else, neither money, looks, nor pedigree. It’s a gift, only given to give away, and the more used, there more there is. It is also a climate of behaviour set for perpetual summer and thermostatically controlled by taste and tact. True charm is an aura, an invisible mask in the air; if you see it working, the spell is broken. At its worst, it is the charm of the charity duchess, like being struck in the face with a bunch of tulips; at its best, it is a smooth and painless injection which raises the blood to a genial fever. Most powerful of all, it is obsessive, direct, person to person, forsaking all others. Never attempt to ask for whom the char bells ring, if they toll for anyone, they must toll for you. 4. It was late and everyone had left the cafe except an old man who sat in the shadow the leaves of the tree made against the electric light. In the daytime the street was dusty, but at night the dew settled the dust and the old man liked to sit late because he was deaf and now at night it was quiet and he felt the difference. The two waiters inside the cafe knew that the old man was a little drunk, and while he was a good client they knew that if he became too drunk he would leave without paying, so they kept watch on him. “Last week he tried to commit suicide,” one waiter said, “Why?” “He was in despair.” “What about?” “Nothing.” “How do you know it was nothing?” “He has plenty of money” They sat together at a table that was close against the wall near the door of the cafe and looked at the terrace where the tables were all empty except where the old man sat in the shadow of the leaves of the tree that moved slightly in the wind. A girl and a soldier went by in the street. The street light shone on the brass number on his collar. The girl wore no head covering and hurried beside him. 5. There is a great deal to be said for the Arts. For one thing they offer the only career in which commercial failure is not necessarily discreditable. Shabbiness of appearance and irregularity of life are not only forgiven to the artist but expected. Art offers scope for profound and prolonged laziness and in the event of success gives rewards quite out of proportion to industry. �Содержание Of all the arts the one most recommended to the young beginner is literature. Painting is messy; music is noisy; and the applied arts and crafts require a certain amount of skill. But writing is clean, quiet, and can be done anywhere at any time by anyone. All you need is some ink, a piece of paper, a pen and some vague knowledge of spelling. Even the last is not essential if you employ a competent typist. All you have to do is to write “Chapter One” at the head of your paper and from then onwards for better or worse you are an author. Many people never get any further that that. 6. Fancy a novel about Chicago or Buffalo, let us say, of Nashville, Tennessee! There are just three big cities in the United States that are “story cities” New York, of course, New Orleans, and, best of the lot, San Francisco – Frank Norris. East is East, and West is San Francisco, according to Californians. Californians are a race of people; they are not merely inhabitants of a State. They are the Southerners of the West, Now, Chicagoans are no less loyal to their city; but when you ask them why, they stammer and speak of lake fish and the new Odd Fellows Building. But Californians go into detail. Of course they have, in the climate, an argument that is good for half an hour while you are thinking of your coal bills and heavy underwear. But as soon as they come to mistake your silence for conviction, madness comes upon them, and they picture the city of the Golden Gate as the Bagdad of the New World. So far as a matter of opinion, no refutation is necessary. But dear cousins (from Adam and Eve descended), and it is a rash one who will lay his finger on the map and say: “In this town there can be no romance – what could happen here?” Yes, it is a bold and a rash deed to challenge in one sentence history, romance, and Rand and McNally. Nashville. – A city, port of delivery, and the capital of the state of Tenessee, is on the Cumberland River and on the N.C.& St. L. and L.&N. railroads, this city is regarded as the most important educational center in the South. I stepped off the train at 8 p.m. Having searched thesaurus in vain for adjectives, I must, as a substitution, tie me to comparison in the form of a recipe. Take of London fog 30 parts; malaria 10 parts; gas leaks 20 parts; dewdrops gathered in a brick yard at sunrise, 25 parts; odor of honeysuckle 15 parts. Mix, The mixture will give you an approximate conception of a Nashville drizzle. It is not so fragrant as a moth-ball nor as thick as pea-soap: but ’tis enough – ’twill serve. 7. Mr. Kelada was chatty. He talked of New York and of San Francisco. He discussed plays, pictures, and politics. He was patriotic. The Union Jack is an impressive piece of drapery, but when it is flourished by a gentleman from Alexandria or Beirut, I cannot but feel that it loses somewhat in dignity. I do not wish to put on airs, but I cannot help feeling that it is seemly in a total stranger to put mister before my name when he addresses me. Mr. Kelada, doubtless to set me at my ease, used no such formality. I did not like Mr. Kelada. I had put aside the cards when he sat down, but now, thinking that for this first occasion our conversation had lasted long enough, I went on with my game. �Содержание “The three on the four”, said Mr. Kelada. There is nothing more exasperating when you are playing patience than to be told where to put the card you have turned up before you have had a chance to look for youself. “It’ coming out, it’s coming out,” he cried. With rage and hatred in my heart I finished. I did not like Mr. Kelada. �Содержание PART V. THE LANGUAGE OF POETRY Analysing Poetry Sir Walter Raleigh. Even Such Is Time John Donne. Holy Sonnets. Sonnet XIII Robert Herrick. To the Virgins, to Make Much of Time William Blake. A Poison Tree Edgar Allan Poe. Alone Emily Dickinson. There is no Frigate like a Book Christina Rossetti. Up-hill William Butler Yeats. For Anne Gregory Edwin Arlington Robinson. Richard Cory Robert Frost. Gathering Leaves Edward Estlin Commings. Pity this Busy Monster, Manunkind Dylan Thomas. Do Not Go Gentle Into That Good Night Dorothy Parker. Frustration Allen Ginsberg. A Supermarket in California Tom Clark. Poem Poems for Self-Guided Analysis �Содержание Analysing Poetry One of the most definable characteristics of the poetic form is economy. Poetry is a compact language that expresses complex feelings. Unlike prose, poetry often has an underlying purpose that goes beyond the literal meaning of the words. It evokes in the reader an intense emotion: joy, sorrow, anger, love, etc. It has the ability to surprise the reader or make the reader experience revelation or insight. William Wordsworth defined poetry as “the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings”. Dylan Thomas said, “Poetry is what makes me laugh or cry or yawn, what makes my toenails twinkle, what makes me want to do this or that or nothing.” Poems often make heavy use of imagery and word association to quickly convey emotions. The emphasis on the aesthetics of language and the use of different techniques such as meter and rhyme dictates a specific approach to the analysis of poetic text. The reader needs to examine a poem from different perspectives and identify various tools the poet uses to make the meaning clear and understandable. Elements, including theme, structure and writing style, should be taken into consideration. The following scheme aims to organize the reader’s responses to a poem into a logical, pointby-point explanation. It involves questions that apply to most poetry. I. Impression The first immediate responses to a poem are very important. Emotional reactions, positive or negative, reminders of personal experiences, or things the reader would like to share with others, can provide a focus for the analysis and help logically connect its main aspects. The reader may change their mind about the poem later, but these first ideas are worth recording. Answering the following questions the reader should summarize their personal responses. 1. Are you emotionally moved or touched by the poem? 2. Are you entertained or bored, rejoiced or terrified? 3. Do you agree or disagree with the author? 4. Do some words and phrases capture your attention? Why? II. Background Information Knowing something about the poet’s life, times, and culture helps the reader understand what is contained in a poem and why. 1. Who is the author of the poem? 2. Does the poet’s life suggest any special point of view, such as political affiliation, religion, profession, talent or handicap, family or personal problems? 3. When was the poem written? 4. What does it tell about life during some period in history? 5. Does the poem belong to a particular literary movement? �Содержание Poetic Trends Neoclassical Poetry – poetry that contains the principles and ideals of beauty characteristic of the Greek and Roman period. Classicism concerns itself with form and discipline as opposed to emotional impact as in Romanticism. The works of Neoclassical poets (John Dryden, Alexander Pope) are characterized by their formality, simplicity, and emotional restraint Metaphysical Poetry – a group of British lyric poets of the 17th century (John Donne, George Herbert, Andrew Marvell, Henry Vaughn) whose witty, ingenious, and highly philosophical works were characterized by unusual verse forms, elaborate and surprising metaphors (conceits), puns and paradoxes. Their topics include love, God, life and death Cavalier Poets – a school of English poets of the 17th century (Robert Herrick, Richard Lovelace, John Suckling), who came from the classes that supported King Charles I during the English Civil War. Much of their poetry is light in style, and generally secular in subject Graveyard Poets – a group of the 18th century poets (Thomas Gray, Thomas Parnell, Robert Blair, Edward Young) who saw in the graveyard an occasion for reflection on human mortality and emphasized the subjects of religion, death, and loss. They paved the way for the Gothic and Romanticism Romantic Poetry – an artistic and intellectual movement originated in the late 18th as a reaction against the Enlightenment. Romantic Poets (William Blake, William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, John Keats, Lord Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelley) emphasized imagination, strong emotion and intuition Fireside Poets – a group of 19th-century American poets associated with New England (Henry Longfellow, William Bryant, John Whittier, James Lowell, Oliver Holmes) whose poetry is characterized by domestic themes and messages of morality presented in conventional poetic forms Symbolist Poetry – a late 19th century poetic movement of French, Russian and Belgian origin. Symbolists (Charles Baudelaire, Stéphane Mallarmé, Paul Verlaine, Arthur Rimbaud, Rainer Maria Rilke, Aleksandr Blok, Oscar Wilde) believed that art should represent absolute truths that could only be described indirectly, and wrote in a very metaphorical manner, endowing particular images or objects with symbolic meaning Imagism – a group of American and English poets (Ezra Pound, Amy Lowell, William Carlos Williams) who wrote compact and clear verse in which an exact visual image made a total poetic statement Modernist Poetry – poetry written, mainly in Europe and North America, between 1890 and 1950 in the tradition of modernist literature which is characterized by the radical break with the conventions and established rules of the past. Modernist poets (e. e. commings, William Butler Yeats, T. S. Eliot, Robert Frost, Dylan Thomas, Wallace Stevens) experimented in form, style and subject to reveal fresh ways of looking at man’s position and function in the universe The Beat Generation – a group of American post WWII writers and poets (Allen Ginsberg, William S. Poetry Burrough, Neal Cassady, Jack Kerouac, Gary Snyder, Lawrence Ferlinghetti, Gregory Corso) who questioned mainstream politics and culture. In the 1960s, elements of the expanding Beat movement were incorporated into the hippie and larger counterculture movements �Содержание The Movement – a group of English writers and poets (Kingsley Amis, Philip Larkin, Donald Alfred Davie, D.J. Enright, John Wain, Elizabeth Jennings and Robert Conquest) who were opposed to modernists. Their tone was anti-romantic and rational. To these poets, good poetry meant simple, sensuous content and traditional form The reader should apply definitions of many categories to determine which describes the poem's length and style. 6. What is the genre of the poem? 7. Was it popular in the time the poem was created? 8. Does it contribute to the overall message of the poem? Poetic Genres Epic Epitaph Lyric Elegy – – – – – a long poem about a great person or national hero a commemorative inscription on a tomb or monument about the person buried a short, musical verse expressing the author’s thoughts and feelings a mournful, melancholy or plaintive poem a lengthy lyric poem typically of a serious or meditative nature and having an elevated style Ode – Narrative poem – Dialogue poem – “Carpe diem” poem – Pastoral a poem that depicts rural life in a peaceful, romanticized way a poem that tells a story a poem in which two characters carry on a conversation is a poem that has the theme of living for the present derived from the Latin expression that means “seize the day” Satire poem – a poem using irony, exaggeration and ridicule, to expose and criticize stupidity and vice – a poem which deals with subjects which are "beyond reality” Dramatic monologue – a poem which is spoken to a listene Confessional poem – a poem which focuses on extreme moments of individual experience, psyche, or Speculative poem personal trauma III. Title The reader’s search for the ideas should begin at the title of the poem. It was probably carefully chosen. 1. What information does the title give? 2. Is the title’s meaning obvious, or does it imply multiple possibilities? 3. What expectations does it create? 4. Is the title an object or event that becomes a symbol? �Содержание IV. Speaker Another important aspect in a poem is the speaker. 1. Does the voice speak in first person (I, me, my, mine)? 2. Does the voice sound like the direct voice of the poet speaking to you, expressing thoughts and feelings? 3. Does the speaker address another person? 4. Is the speaker a man or a woman, someone young or old? 5. For what audience was the poem written? 6. Is the voice meant to be universal – for example, relevant to any person, time or place? V. Themes and Ideas Theme is the poem’s essence. Asking the questions “who,” “what,” “where,” “when” and “why” can help to understand the theme. “What” creates focus on the general topic and can also be used to describe the plot of the poem. 1. What is the poem about? 2. Are there several subjects? How do they relate to each other? 3. Answering the “who” question is identifying the characters of the poem. 4. Who are the characters of the poem? 5. Does the name of a character suggest extra meaning? “Where” refers to the physical location of the action in the poem. 6. Where do the events take place? “When” may refer to the time of day or the time in history the poem occurs. 7. What details specify time? 8. How long is the period of time? Are there gaps? “Why” answers the question of the author’s purpose in writing the poem. Here the reader comes close to the idea about the theme. The idea is what makes up the message of the poem. 9. What does the poet state about the theme? 10. Which lines bring out the meaning of the poem? 11. Is the idea expressed directly or implied? Does the poet insist on it? Or does he allow the reader their own interpretation? VI. Mood and Tone �Содержание The speaker’s tone (satiric, serious, mock serious, playful, somber, or teasingly) and the mood of the poem (cheerful or jolly, mysterious, provocative, zany, ominous, festive, fearful, or brooding) are among the basic aspects of analysis. 1. What is the mood of the poem? 2. Does the mood change within the body of the work? Where does the shift begin? 3. What is the speaker’s tone? Is the speaker angry, sad, happy, or cynical? 4. Is there an obvious reason for this attitude? 5. Is the poet trying to make a point, win an argument, or move someone to action? Or does the poem express something without requiring an answer? VII. Structure and Organization The structure is an essential part of how the poem is perceived. It affects how fast or slowly it is read, where the pauses are. It causes certain words to stand out more prominently. It affects the way the poem looks to the reader on the page. For example, a lot of space between words and lines gives a feeling of lightness and air. If the words are packed together in a poem it can imply emotional tension or a complicated subject. Some poems have smooth and delicate shapes; others have heavy and dense shapes. There poems with shapes that intentionally imitate what the poem is about. Thus the structure of a poem can be used as an argument to support its ideas. The number of stanzas and lines in the poem may contribute to its mood and tone. 1. How is the poem organized? How does it look on the page? 2. Are there individual stanzas or sections? 3. Does each stanza cover a separate topic, or is there a continued theme throughout the poem? 4. How does the structure reveal the poet’s attitude toward the subject? Poetic forms include many types and may be discussed in the analysis of a poem. 5. How does the form of the poem contribute to its general atmosphere and tone? 6. How do the subject and the form interact? Poetic Forms Acrostic poem – a poem in which certain letters, usually the first in each line form a word or message when read in a sequence Ballad Blank verse – a poem that tells a story similar to a folk tale or legend which often has a repeated refrain – a poem written in unrhymed iambic pentameter, the form which resembles the rhythm of ordinary speech �Содержание Cinquain – a poem of five lines (line 1 has one word (the title), line 2 has two words that describe the title, line 3 has three words that tell the action, line 4 has four words that express the feeling, line 5 has one word which recalls the title) Epigram Free verse Haiku – a very short, ironic and witty poem usually written as a brief couplet or quatrain – poetry written in either rhymed or unrhymed lines that have no set fixed metrical pattern – a poem following a Japanese pattern which is a three-line observation about a fleeting moment involving nature. Haiku poem is composed of unrhymed lines of five, seven, and five syllables Sonnet – a lyric poem that consists of 14 lines which usually have one or more conventional rhyme schemes Villanelle (villanesque) – a fixed verse form of French origin consisting of five tercets followed by a quatrain. There are two refrains and two repeating rhymes, with the first and third line of the first tercet repeated alternately until the last stanza, which includes both repeated lines The expression of feelings and ideas in a poem is given intensity by the use of distinctive metre and rhythm. Meter is the regular arrangement of stressed and unstressed syllables. Foot is the basic unit of meter which consists of one stressed syllable and one or more unstressed syllables. The number of feet in the line determines its metrical length: monometre – one foot, dimetre – two feet, trimetre – three feet, tetrameter – four feet, pentameter – five feet, hexameter – six feet, heptameter – seven feet, octametre – eight feet. 7. What is the poem’s metre? How does it affect your response to the poem? 8. Is there a dominant rhythm? 9. Does the rhythm relate to the prevalent theme of the poem? Or does it seem at odds with the theme? 10. Does the rhythm increase or decrease in speed? Iamb (iambic) Trochee (trochaic) Poetic Metre – one unstressed syllable followed by one stressed syllable (da/DUM): She walks in beauty, like the night Of cloudless climes and starry skies; And all that’s best of dark and bright Meet in her aspect and her eyes; Thus mellowed to that tender light Which heaven to gaudy day denies. (from She Walks in Beauty by George Gordon Byron) – one stressed syllable followed by one unstressed syllable (DUM/da): Should you ask me, whence these stories? Whence these legends and traditions, With the odours of the forest, With the dew and damp of meadows,… �Содержание Anapest (anapestic) Dactyl (dactylic) Amphibrach (amphibrachic) (from The Song of Hiawatha by Henry Longfellow) – two unstressed syllables followed by one stressed syllable (da/da/DUM): Twas the night before Christmas, when all through the house Not a creature was stirring, not even a mouse. The stockings were hung by the chimney with care, In hopes that St Nicholas soon would be there. (from A Visit from St. Nicholas by Clement Moore) – lyric poem that consists of 14 lines which usually have one or more conventional rhyme schemes. – one stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllables(DUM/da/da): We that had loved him so, followed him, honoured him, Lived in his mild and magnificent eye, Learned his great language, caught his clear accents, Made him our pattern to live and to die! (from The Lost Leader by Robert Browning) – one stressed syllable between two unstressed syllables (da/DUM/da): How dear to this heart are the scenes of my childhood, When fond recollection presents them to view! The orchard, the meadow, the deep-tangled wild-wood, And every loved spot which my infancy knew! (from The Old Oaken Bucket by Samuel Woodworth) Another important structural element is rhyme. There are many different kinds of rhyme schemes. Rhymes are used to give the poem a musical, pleasing sound. They can also be used to deepen meaning, and strengthen the form of the poem. 11. Does the poem rhyme? 12. How does the use of rhyme add to the meaning? Rhyme End rhyme – is one of the most common forms of rhymes when the last word of a line rhymes with another last word of a line Internal rhyme – is the type of rhyme when words in the middle of line rhyme with other words in the middle of a different line True rhyme (perfect rhyme) Off-rhyme (slant rhyme) – a kind of rhyme when words rhyme exactly (“cat” – “rat”) – a kind of rhyme when words that almost rhyme, but do not rhyme exactly (“fate” – “saint”). Off rhymes use assonance and consonance. Assonance is when the vowels of two words rhyme, while consonance is when the consonants of two words are the same Eye rhyme (visual – a rhyme in which two words are spelled similarly but pronounced differently rhyme, or sight rhyme) Discussion of structure also includes the significant information or emotion contained in the opening and closing lines of the poem, sentence patterns and punctuation use. �Содержание VIII. Language Tools Every conclusion the reader draws about a poem should be based on its language. A poem is only words, and each has been carefully chosen to create a specific emotional response through its meaning. Word choice underlines the tone and mood of a poem. 1. Are there stylistically coloured words in the poem? 2. Are there words with common semantic components? 3. What connotations (positive or negative) prevail? Lexical devices like irony, hyperbole and symbol are typical techniques in a poem. 4. Does the poem introduce some word used in its opposite meaning, or situation that involves discrepancy? 5. Does the author exaggerate some idea or emotion? 6. Are there any symbols in the poem? Poems also tend to suggest things beyond what they actually say. Often what causes the strongest emotions is not what the poem tells, but what it makes the reader imagine. Figurative language, including metaphors, similes and personification, is the main source of a poem’s imagery. 7. Are there concrete images or pictures that the poet wants readers to see? 8. Are the pictures created by personification, metaphor, simile or allusion? 9. Which comparisons are stressed? Are they all positive? How are they connected? Allusions are another source of images. The use of intertextuality enhances a poem’s composition. 10. Does the poem contain any Biblical, historical or literary references? How do they affect the understanding of the poem’s ideas? 11. Do the allusions create specific atmosphere or mood? Some parts of a poem seem to speak directly to the readers’ senses. The use of the senses in a poem makes it more imaginative and expressive. 12. Does the poem evoke sense impressions – for example, taste, touch, smell, sound, or sight? What words or phrases accentuate them? Are these impressions pleasant, unpleasant, or neutral? 13. Does the poet concentrate on a single sense or several of them? �Содержание The words in poems are doing several jobs at the same time. They do one thing with their meaning, and another thing with their sound. Phonetic devices such as assonance, alliteration, onomatopoeia adds to the discussion of a poem’s theme, mood and message. Readers should also look for repetition of specific words, phrases, or verses in the poem, and decide why certain information seems to deserve the repetition. 14. Does the poet stress certain sounds, such as pleasant sounds (euphony) or harsh letter combinations (cacophony)? 15. Are certain sounds repeated (alliteration, assonance)? 16. Is there onomatopoeia? 17. How does the sounding of the poem add to its emotional effect? IX. Conclusion Now that the key elements of the poem have been considered, it is time to step back and decide what the poem means as a whole. To do this, the reader needs to synthesize (combine) the separate parts of analysis into one main idea. 1. Why do you think the poet wrote the poem? 2. How effective the form of the poem is in communicating the message? The reader should go back to the questions from the first response stage of the analysis and summarise all the impressions. �Содержание Sir Walter Raleigh (1554–1618) Before his execution for treason, Sir Walter Raleigh brought glory to Elizabethan England as an explorer of the New World, a scholar and a gifted lyric poet. He is considered one of the foremost poets of the Elizabethan era. In his poetry Raleigh uses simple, undecorated language, plain diction and conceptual images. Even Such Is Time Да, Время таково Even such is time, which takes in trust Our youth, our joys, and all we have, And pays us but with age and dust, Who in the dark and silent grave When we have wandered all our ways Shuts up the story of our days, And from which earth, and grave, and dust The Lord will raise me up, I trust. Да, Время таково – оно ведь управляет И молодостью, и радостями жизни нашей милой. За это – отдаём ему года, и жизни наши Время забирает. И вот, во мраке и безмолвии могилы Историю мы дней своих покорно завершаем, Пройдя отпущенный нам путь. Однако знаем, Что из могилы и из праха нас возродит Господь, И вновь мы обретём живую плоть. Перевод А. Горшкова Questions and Tasks for the Analysis of the Poem 1. What is the theme of the poem? 2. The poem is an epitaph. What mood is imposed by the genre of the poem? How is it revealed in the word choice? Which words are repeated? 3. What is the role of personification? What images of Time are evoked? Are they original or trite? 4. What elements construct the circular shape of the poem? Consider the repetition and rhyme. 5. What phonetic devices contribute to the rhythm and melody of the poem? 6. Interpret the idea contained in the last line. What syntactical expressive means intensifies the speaker’s opinion? Is he convinced, or is he in doubt? 7. What is the message of the poem? Does the idea of resurrection sound optimistic? 8. What is your personal response to the poem? �Содержание John Donne (1572–1631) John Donne is remembered today as the leading exponent of Metaphysical Poetry, which flourished in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. Eclipsed by Romantic and Victorian trends this highly intellectual form of poetry remained disregarded until the early part of the twentieth century when it was rediscovered by modernists like T.S. Eliot. Metaphysical poetry is witty, ingenious, and highly philosophical. Its topics include life, love, death. It typically employs uncommon verse forms, elaborate metaphors, irony and paradox. Donne’s poetry exhibits each of these characteristics. Unusual meters, puns, conceits and unexpected reasoning are unified in Donne as in no other poet. Donne was a poet of inner conflict. As a minister in the Anglican Church, Donne possessed a deep spirituality, but as a man, Donne had a deep longing for life, sensation, and experience. In his best poems, Donne mixes the physical and the spiritual. His use of religious imagery in love poems and images of love in religious poetry shocked his contemporaries. The rhythm of Donne’s poems is the rhythm of natural speech and the language is dramatic. Donne usually begins with a bright thought-provoking line. He often tries to persuade his reader to share his point of view through poetry which appeals both to the intellect and the emotion. Holy Sonnets Sonnet XIII Благочестивые сонеты Сонет 13 What if this present were the world’s last night? Mark in my heart, O soul, where thou dost dwell, The picture of Christ crucified, and tell Whether that countenance can thee affright, Tears in his eyes quench the amazing light, Blood fills his frowns, which from his pierced head fell. Что, если этот вечер, ночь вот эта – Последние? В предсмертный лик Христа Вглядись, душа – хотя б одна черта Тебя страшит предчувствием ответа? Смотри: в глазах – сквозь боль – сиянье света; Чело не пачкает мирская суета; And can that tongue adjudge thee unto hell, Which prayed forgiveness for his foes’ fierce spite? No, no; but as in my idolatry I said to all my profane mistresses, Beauty, of pity, foulness only is A sign of rigour: so I say to thee, To wicked spirits are horrid shapes assigned, This beauteous form assures a piteous mind. И разве “ад” произнесут уста, Когда любовь к врагам – суть их завета? Душа, не бойся. Страсть меня вела, Но я, бывало, говорил любимой: “Будь доброй, если хочешь стать красивой, А пудра не поможет, коли зла; – Ведь злость – уродством прорастёт из черт...” А Он прекрасен – значит – милосерд. Перевод А. Спарбера Questions and Tasks for the Analysis of the Poem 1. What do you know about “metaphysical poetry”? What are its main themes? 2. What is the main theme of this poem? How does the poet introduce it? �Содержание 3. What did you expect the poem to be about after reading the first line? 4. Who is the speaker of the poem? Who does he address? 5. The poem is written in the form of a Petrarchan sonnet. What is the focal image of the opening sestet? What is the central concept in the following octave? Can you justify the poet’s logic? Why do you think he decided to combine divine and earthly subject? 6. How does the poet describe Christ? Analyse the word choice. What is the speaker’s tone? Is he afraid or amazed? Or both? Can you describe his feelings in one word? 7. In what context are beauty and pity introduced? What is the ground for the interaction of these two concepts? 8. Consider the ambiguity of the closing couplet. Do you support the author’s idea that beauty is a sign of pity, and ugliness is a sign of severity? 9. What is the message of the sonnet? Is the poet persuasive in his arguments? �Содержание Robert Herrick (1591–1674) Robert Herrick was one of the Cavalier Poets, the group of English poets who supported Charles I during The Puritan Revolution. Cavalier Poets were associated with Royalist unlike the Metaphysical poets who were mostly attracted to the rational and intellectual atmosphere of Puritanism. “Cavalier” implies more than just “Royalist”. It implies, for instance, a particular class of man: courtly, well-educated and genteel. Accomplished as soldiers, courtiers, gallants, and wits, Cavalier poets wrote elegant lyrics, typically on love and flirtation and sometimes on war, honour, and duty to the king. They avoided the subject of earnest emotion or public concern. In their casual and affectionate poems they celebrated pleasures and sadnesses of life using direct and colloquial language. To the Virgins, to Make Much of Time Девственницам: спешите наверстать упущенное Gather ye rosebuds while ye may, Old Time is still a-flying; And this same flower that smiles today Tomorrow will be dying. Срывайте розы поскорей, Подвластно всё старенью, Цветы, что ныне всех милей, Назавтра станут тенью. The glorious lamp of heaven, the sun, The higher he’s a-getting, The sooner will his race be run, And nearer he’s to setting. Вот солнце движется в зенит, Небесная лампада, И чем скорей оно бежит, Тем ближе миг заката. That age is best which is the first, When youth and blood are warmer; But being spent, the worse, and worst Times still succeed the former. Прекрасны юности года, Что кровь зажгли отменно, Но время худшее всегда Приходит на замену. Then be not coy, but use your time, And while ye may, go marry; For having lost but once your prime, You may forever tarry. Отбросьте скромность, и наряд Оденьте подвенечный; Пройдёт весна и сей обряд Вам ждать, быть может, вечно. Перевод А. Лукьянова Questions and Tasks for the Analysis of the Poem 1. What epoch do the Cavalier Poets represent? What are the main features of their poetry? 2. What is a “carpe diem” poem? Is the main statement stated straightforwardly or implied in the poem? 3. Does the poem have a speaking title? 4. Who is the speaker of the poem? Who does the speaker address? Is the speaker’s appeal meant to be universal or personal? �Содержание 5. Analyse the imagery of the first two quatrians. What stylistic devices does the author employ? What do the images of nature symbolically represent? Are they original or trite? Are they effective in communicating the poet’s message? 6. How does the poet develop his idea in the third and the fourth stanzas? What are the poet’s arguments for the urgent pursuit of love and marriage? 7. The poem is carefully constructed. What poetic techniques contribute to its clear and simple structure? Analyse metre and rhyme of the poem. How do the mood and the form of the poem interact? 8. What phonetic expressive means are used in the poem? How do they add to its emotional effect? 9. Do you support the author’s message? What are the risks of “living for the moment”? �Содержание William Blake (1757–1827) William Blake is often regarded as the first Romantic poet who revolutionized the concept of creative process. Being a religious, political, and artistic radical he protested against the rationalist philosophy of the 18th century and its restrictive influence on man’s life and work. Blake’s talent was disregarded during his lifetime. He was recognised as a poetic genius only in the 20th century. Blake’s work is rich in symbols and images. He tried to create an alternative reality to that which dissatisfied him. This system of personal myths and visions was complex and elusive. Blake was fascinated with the idea of “contraries”. He said that the “doors of perception” are cleansed only by a transformation of categories so that contraries meet in newly energetic formations. He understood Heaven as a part of a structure which must become one with the creative energy of Hell raher than stand in opposition to it. Thus the tigers and horses, the lions and lambs, the children and adults, the innocent and the experienced in Blake’s poems should be regarded as integral elements of creation. In his most influential work The Marriage of Heaven and Hell Blake said, “The reason Milton wrote in fetters when he wrote of Angels and God, and at liberty when of Devils and Hell, is because he was a true Poet and of the Devil’s party without knowing it.” Thus Blake believes all poets have free imagination because they belong to the kingdom of Hell which is the source of creative energy in the whole structure of the universe. Blake used his imagination to express the innermost emotions of the human race. The following poem explores themes of indignation, revenge, and more generally the fallen state of mankind. A Poison Tree I was angry with my friend; I told my wrath, my wrath did end. I was angry with my foe: I told it not, my wrath did grow. Древо Яда В ярость друг меня привёл – Гнев излил я, гнев прошёл. Враг обиду мне нанёс – Я молчал, но гнев мой рос. And I waterd it in fears, Night and morning with my tears: And I sunned it with smiles, And with soft deceitful wiles. Я таил его в тиши В глубине своей души, То слезами поливал, То улыбкой согревал. And it grew both day and night. Till it bore an apple bright. And my foe beheld it shine, And he knew that it was mine. Рос он ночью, рос он днём. Зрело яблочко на нём, Яда сладкого полно. Знал мой недруг, чьё оно. And into my garden stole, When the night had veiled the pole; In the morning glad I see; My foe outstretched beneath the tree. Темной ночью в тишине Он прокрался в сад ко мне И остался недвижим, Ядом скованный моим. Перевод С.Я. Маршака �Содержание Questions and Tasks for the Analysis of the Poem 1. What is William Blake’s literary reputation? 2. This poem appears in Blake’s famous work Songs of Innocence and Experience: Shewing the Two Contrary States of the Human Soul (1794) in the “Songs of Experience” section. Why do you think the author included it in this section? What kind of experience is described in the poem? 3. What is the genre of the poem? 4. What expectations are suggested by the title? 5. Who is the speaker in the poem? Does the voice sound like the direct voice of the poet speaking to the reader, expressing thoughts and feelings? 6. What is the poem about? Is the theme expressed directly or implicitly? 7. How is the conflict introduced in the first quatrain? What language means accentuate the speaker’s tone? 8. What image is used to depict human anger? How does the poet foreshadow it in the first stanza? How does he extend it within the poem? 9. What is the mood of the poem? How does it change as the story progresses? What words help the poet define each stage of the speaker’s feeling towards his foe. 10. Consider the metre of the poem. Does the rhythm relate to the subject of the poem? Or does it seem at odds with it? 11. Where is the climax of the poem? How does the reader learn what happened to the speaker’s foe? Why does the author omit the murder scene from the story? 12. What is the resolution of the poem? Does the speaker regret his crime? 13. What is the message of the poem? Does it contain a moral? �Содержание Edgar Allan Poe (1809–1849) Edgar Poe’s life was surrounded by tragedy with his parents passing away when he was just 3 years old. He became obsessive with drink and gambling and this resulted in his own rather obscure death as a drunk in Baltimore. Despite this his poems and novels that explored the conditions of the human psyche earned him international fame both during his life and after his death. Edgar Poe was the principal forerunner of aestheticism, or the “art for art’s sake” movement, in the 19th-century European literature. His poetry and short stories greatly influenced the French Symbolists of the late nineteenth century, who in turn altered the direction of modern literature. In his work Edgar Poe demonstrated a brilliant command of language and technique. A literary work, according to Poe, is not a product of inspiration; it should be the result of careful consideration on the part of the author. Poe’s theory of poetic composition consists in the following points: a poem should be devoid of any moral, its beauty being an end in itself; the subject and mood of a poem are accentuated by its rhythm and rhymes; a poem should have a single effect; a poem can be read in one sitting; a poem should be sad. The emphasis on literary formalism was connected to Poe’s philosophical ideals: through the deliberate use of language one can express the essential condition of human existence. In poetry, the single effect in a poem must arouse the reader’s sense of beauty, an ideal that Poe closely associated with sadness, strangeness, and loss. Walt Whitman said, “Poe’s verses illustrate an intense faculty for technical and abstract beauty, with the rhyming art to excess, an incorrigible propensity toward nocturnal themes, and a demoniac undertone behind every page.” He also pointed out “an indescribable magnetism about the poet’s life and reminiscences, as well as the poems”. Alone Один From childhood’s hour I have not been As others were – I have not seen As others saw – I could not bring My passions from a common spring – From the same source I have not taken My sorrow – I could not awaken My heart to joy at the same tone – And all I lov’d – I lov’d alone – Then – in my childhood – in the dawn Of a most stormy life – was drawn From ev’ry depth of good and ill The mystery which binds me still – From the torrent, or the fountain – From the red cliff of the mountain – From the sun that ’round me roll’d In its autumn tint of gold – Я не таким был с детских лет, Как прочие; открылся свет Иначе мне; мирских начал В моих страстях не замечал. Я из других пределов ждал Мою печаль; не пробуждал В душе восторг под общий слог; В любви всегда был одинок. Тогда же – в детстве, в ранний миг Мятежной жизни, – вдруг возник Из глубины добра и зла Блеск тайны, что меня прожгла: Из потока, от истока, С красных круч горы высокой, От светила на заре В золотистом сентябре, �Содержание From the lightning in the sky As it pass’d me flying by – From the thunder, and the storm – And the cloud that took the form (When the rest of Heaven was blue) Of a demon in my view – От зарницы озорной, Пролетевшей надо мной, Из грозы, под грома стук, Да из тучи, ставшей вдруг На лазурных небесах Демоном в моих глазах. Перевод В. Бойко Questions and Tasks for the Analysis of the Poem 1. What is Edgar Poe’s literary reputation? 2. What is the genre of the poem? What traumatic psychological experience is described? How does the poem reflect the poet’s life? 3. What is the theme of the poem? What is the idea? Is it expressed directly? Which lines bring out the meaning of the poem? 4. What were the circumstances surrounding the speaker’s childhood? How does the speaker describe his uniqueness at the beginning of the poem? 5. What is the tone of the poem? What words reinforce the tone? 6. Analyse the meter and rhyme. Where does the metre change? How does it affect the mood of the poem? 7. What images are employed to show the speaker’s mysterious estrangement? 8. What phonetic devices accentuate the rhythm of the poem? 9. What is the role of punctuation? 10. Interpret the symbol in the last line. Who or what is the demon? 11. Does the poem contain any message? 12. Does the poem meet the requirements Edgar Poe enlisted in his theory of poetic composition? 13. What is your personal response to the poem? �Содержание Emily Dickinson (1830–1886) Emily Dickinson is such a unique poet that it is very difficult to place her in any single tradition. Unlike William Blake or William Wordsworth she made no effort to organize her thoughts and feelings into a coherent, unified philosophic system. Dickinson’s poems simply record thoughts and feelings experienced naturally over the course of a lifetime. They are astonishing and thought-provoking verses devoted to reflection and creativity. Emily Dickinson had a quiet and reserved family life. Choosing to live life internally within the confines of her home, Dickinson brought her life into sharp focus. She chose to live within the limitless expanses of her imagination. She redefined the meaning of deprivation because being denied something – whether it was faith, love, literary recognition, or some other desire – provided a sharper understanding than she would have experienced had she achieved what she wanted. “Water, is taught by thirst”, she wrote, “Success is counted sweetest / By those who ne’er succeed.” Most of Emily Dickinson’s poems are written in short stanzas, mostly quatrains, with short lines. She ended lines with dashes and capitalized nouns sporadically. She used forms of rhyme that were not generally accepted till late in the 19th century and are used by modern poets. Off-rhymes, or slant rhymes, seem consistent with the brooding quality of the poet’s mind and may have helped Emily Dickinson to focus on selection of words. Dickinson’s greatest achievement as a poet of inwardness is her brilliant language. She often writes aphoristically, meaning that she compresses a great deal of meaning into a very small number of words. This can make her poems hard to understand on the first reading, but when their meaning unveils itself, it often explodes in the mind all at once, and lines that seemed strange can become intensely clear. Emily Dickinson’s poems are famous for their metaphorical conceits drawn from many diverse sources. Her images sometimes create natural or social scenes but are more likely to create fantastic or allegorical landscapes. Her favorite themes are love, death, separation, inner world, religion, nature. There is no Frigate like a Book To take us Lands away Nor any Coursers like a Page Of prancing Poetry – This Travel may the poorest take Without offence of Toll – How frugal is the Chariot That bears the Human soul. Нет лучше Фрегата – чем Книга – Домчит до любых берегов. Нет лучше Коня – чем страница Гарцующих стихов. Ни дозоров в пути – ни поборов – Не свяжет цепью недуг. На какой простой колеснице Летит человеческий Дух! Перевод В. Марковой Questions and Tasks for the Analysis of the Poem 1. What is the connection between Emily Dickinson’s poetry and the circumstances of her life? 2. What is the theme of the poem? Is the poem about some aspect of human life or human life in general? �Содержание 3. What is the general idea? Is it stated directly? 4. What comparisons does the author use to convey the essence of reading? Analyse the imagery of the poem. Does the author use one extended image or several images? 5. Which words are capitalized? Why do you think the author decide to make them prominent? 6. What purpose do the dashes serve in the poem? 7. Does the poem have a strict metre or rhyme scheme? How does the form affect the mood of the poem? 8. What is the message of the poem? �Содержание Christina Rossetti (1830–1894) Christina Rossetti was one of the finest poets of the Victorian era. After the death of Elizabeth Barrett Browning in 1861, she became the main female poet of the time. She experimented with verse forms such as sonnet, hymn, and ballad, drawing stories from the Bible and folk takes. In the Romantic tradition Rossetti’s early pieces feature meditations on death and loss. Many scholars have identified feminist themes in her poetry as well. Some of her works explore gender ideology, the restrictions imposed upon women, the difficulties facing the female writer. Christina Rossetti’s innovative use of gothic themes, medievalism and Christian symbolism established her as an influential figure in the Pre-Raphaelite movement. By writing thoughtprovoking poetry that demanded meticulous reading and interpretation, Rossetti developed a literary counterpart to the Pre-Raphaelite painting method characterised by sensual detail, intense colours and complex compositions. Pre-Raphaelite paintings present an original combination of romanticised view of life inspired by Medieval and early Renaissance art with almost photographic realism. Similarly Rossetti’s palpable images communicate deep sentiments and moral truths. The peculiar gift of Christina Rossetti is the gift of song manifested in perfect command of rhythm and metre, effective rhymes and refrains. Even when she wished to write allegories and moralities music would break uncontrollably through her argument. Up-hill Дорога вверх Does the road wind up-hill all the way? Yes, to the very end. Will the day’s journey take the whole long day? From morn to night, my friend. Крута дорога до конца ль пути? Крута всегда она. Весь долгий день до места ли идти? С утра и дотемна. But is there for the night a resting-place? A roof for when the slow dark hours begin. May not the darkness hide it from my face? You cannot miss that inn. Найдется ль там, где лечь и отдохнуть? Когда часы ночные к нам придут. Я в темноте не потеряю путь? Увидишь ты приют. Shall I meet other wayfarers at night? Those who have gone before. Then must I knock, or call when just in sight? They will not keep you standing at that door. Мне путников придётся ль повстречать? Кто путь прошёл быстрей. Когда приду, позвать иль постучать? Там не стоят у запертых дверей. Shall I find comfort, travel-sore and weak? Of labor you shall find the sum. Will there be beds for me and all who seek? Yea, beds for all who come. Усталый, я смогу ль покой узнать? Своих трудов узнаешь суть. Для странников готова ли кровать? Для всех, прошедших путь. Перевод К. Андрейчук �Содержание Questions and Tasks for the Analysis of the Poem 1. What do you know about the author of the poem? 2. What associations are suggested by the title? 3. How many speakers are there in the poem? Who are they? Are they generic or individualized persons? 4. What are the advantages of question and answer form in this poem? 5. What is the general topic of the poem? Does the poem refer to a literal, physical journey? 6. How does the metre contribute to the impression of the steady up-hill climb? 7. How does rhyme differentiate the speakers in the poem? What else indicates the change from one speaker to another? 8. What is the general mood of the poem? Find the words and expressions to support your impression. 9. How does the poet describe life and its hardships? What images are used? 10. What clues prompt the reader to interpret the poem symbolically? What are the key symbols in the poem? 11. In what way does the poem resemble a Biblical parable? What is its message? 12. What is your personal response to the poem? Do you agree with the poet’s definition of life as a hard “journey”? What other images can you offer? �Содержание William Butler Yeats (1865–1939) Yeats is not only a national favorite in Ireland but also a major literary figure around the world. He was one of those artists and writers who were beginning to realize that the form and subject they used was inadequate in the face of the social and political upheavals of the early 20th century. Yet, unlike most modernists who experimented with free verse, Yeats was a master of the traditional verse forms. Much of Yeats’ poetry reflects his interest in Irish subject. Fascinated by his motherland, he wrote poems about Irish history and figures of Celtic mythology. Yeats’ early poetry drew heavily on Irish myths and folklore. Yeats was one of those responsible for the establishment of the literary movement known as the Irish Literary Revival. Yeats’ new, modern, way of seeing the world matched with a rapidly changing political landscape in one of his best-known works “Easter, 1916”, a reaction to the Easter uprising, a violent and failed attempt by Irish nationalists to overthrow British rule. Yeats admired William Blake and developed a lifelong interest in mysticism and spiritualism. From early life he associated poetry with religious insights. In later years his writing became even more reflective as he contemplated the world around him. His great themes are youth and old age and the head and the heart. Yeats’ mystical inclinations were reinforced by Hindu religion. Theosophical beliefs and the occult formed much of the basis of his later poetry which is full of allusions and symbols. Yeats’s wide range of styles and subjects reflected the changing world he inhabited and influenced generations of writers who came after him. The poems and plays he produced are simultaneously local and general, personal and public, Irish and universal. For Anne Gregory Анн Грэгори “Never shall a young man, Thrown into despair By those great honey-coloured Ramparts at your ear, Love you for yourself alone And not your yellow hair.” «Нет, никогда парнишка, Страдающий, несчастный, От Ваших волн медовых, Что к ушку вьются страстно, Саму Вас не полюбит, Лишь волосы атласны». “But I can get a hair-dye And set such colour there, Brown, or black, or carrot, That young men in despair May love me for myself alone And not my yellow hair.” «Но я могу покрасить Их в рыжий цвет прекрасный, Коричневый, иль чёрный. Тогда юнец несчастный, Меня саму полюбит, Не волосы атласны». “I heard an old religious man But yesternight declare «Слыхал, вчера священник, Лишь вечер пал ненастный, �Содержание That he had found a text to prove That only God, my dear, Could love you for yourself alone And not your yellow hair.” Стих отыскал, гласящий, Что лишь Господь всевластный Любить саму Вас может, Не волосы атласны». Превод А. Лукьянова Questions and Tasks for the Analysis of the Poem 1. What makes For Ann Gregory a typical Yeats’ poem? 2. What is the genre of the poem? 3. What information is contained in the title of the poem? Is the title speaking? 4. Who are the speakers? What do they argue about? Mark the repetition of some words. Does the subject of their conversation coincide with the theme of the poem? 5. What is the theme of the poem? Are there several themes? How do they relate to each other? 6. What does the poet state about the theme/themes? Does he express his ideas directly? 7. What is the tone of the poem? How does it interact with the structure of the poem? What phonetic tools contribute to the melody of the poem? 8. Who is the embodiment of wisdom in the last stanza? Why does the poet refer to religion speaking about such an earthly subject as hair? 9. What is the philosophic message of the poem? How does the author’s interpret the concepts of internal and external beauty? Are his ideas conventional? Do you agree with the author? �Содержание Edwin Arlington Robinson (1869–1935) Robinson is a true forerunner of the modernist movement in poetry. Robinson’s subject matter differs remarkably from that of his predecessors’, but his form is traditional. He said that if free verse were as easy to write as it was difficult to read, he was not surprised there was so much of it. Robinson wrote almost exclusively about individuals or individual relationships rather than common themes of the nineteenth century. He exhibits a curious mixture of irony and compassion toward his characters – most of whom are failures. Some tragic circumstances of Robinson’s life led many of his poems to have a dark pessimism. Many of his poems deal with “an American dream gone awry”. One of his brothers died of a drug overdose. The other one, a handsome and charismatic man, married the woman Robinson himself loved, suffered business failures, became an alcoholic, and ended up in a charity hospital impoverished and estranged from his wife and children. Richard Cory Ричард Кори Whenever Richard Cory went down town, We people on the pavement looked at him: He was a gentleman from sole to crown, Clean favored, and imperially slim. Когда он выходил за свой порог, Мы, жители окраины, глядели На джентльмена с головы до ног, Гуляющего в царственном безделье. And he was always quietly arrayed, And he was always human when he talked; But still he fluttered pulses when he said, “Good-morning,” and he glittered when he walked. При этом он был скромен и умён И счастлив оказать несчастным милость. Он первый всем отвешивал поклон, Он шёл, и все вокруг него светилось. And he was rich – yes, richer than a king – And admirably schooled in every grace: In fine, we thought that he was everything To make us wish that we were in his place. Он был богат – богаче королей, – Он был прекрасен,— и сказать по чести, Всяк полагал, что нет судьбы светлей, И жаждал быть на дивном этом месте. So on we worked, and waited for the light, And went without the meat, and cursed the bread; And Richard Cory, one calm summer night, Went home and put a bullet through his head. Мы трепетали, думая о нём, И кляли чёрствый хлеб, и спину гнули, А Ричард Кори тихим летним днём, Придя домой, отправил в сердце пулю. Перевод А. Сергеева Questions and Tasks for the Analysis of the Poem 1. What is the genre of the poem? 2. What is the poem about? Where is the scene of the poem set? Who are the characters? 3. Who is the speaker in the poem? Why does the author choose this point of view? �Содержание 4. Interpret the collective image of “people on the pavement”. What does the use of metonymy underline? 5. Analyse the description of the main character. What features do the epithets underline? Are they objective or exaggerated? 6. What words and phrases reveal people’s attitude to Richard Cory? 7. What is the tone of the poem? How is it supported by the metre and rhyme? Find the cases of onomatopoeia, alliteration and assonance in the poem. What purpose do they serve in the poem? 8. How does the tone change in the last stanza? What was the poet’s purpose in making this shift? 9. What causes the defeated expectancy effect in the end of the poem? 10. What is the message of the poem? Does it concern only American Dream concept? Can it be interpreted on the scale of human condition in general? �Содержание Robert Frost (1874–1963) Robert Frost stood right at the crossroads of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. He does not fit into any one era. He was one of the first poets to advocate for individualism in language, before the idea became fashionable in the early 20th century, but he always wrote in his own style, never imitating the current trends. Frost was not an experimental poet. He believed that the sound of a poem, made by its metre and rhyme, is as important to the overall work as the words. He used traditional techniques to describe the world in simple detail. Many of Frost’s most famous poems are inspired by the world of nature. Frost said, “Poetry is more often of the country than the city… Poetry is very, very rural – rustic. It might be taken as a symbol of man, taking its rise from individuality and seclusion – written first for the person that writes and then going out into its social appeal and use.” Frost is famous for his colloquial tone and the subject of everyday life. However, within a seemingly banal event from an ordinary day – mending the stones of a wall, mowing a field of hay – Frost always discerned a deeper meaning. Frost’s poetry is also significant because of the amount of autobiographical material that it contains. He was not a happy man. He suffered from serious depression and anxiety throughout his life and was never convinced that his poetry was truly worthwhile. He suffered through the untimely deaths of his father, mother, and sister, as well as four of his six children and his beloved wife, all of which contributed to the melancholy that appears in much of Frost’s work. Gathering Leaves Собирая листья Spades take up leaves No better than spoons, And bags full of leaves Are light as balloons. Лопатой грести – Что детским совком. И листьев мешок, Как шар, невесом. I make a great noise Of rustling all day Like rabbit and deer Running away. Начавши с утра, Шуршу целый день, Как кролик в лесу Иль, может, олень. But the mountains I raise Elude my embrace, Flowing over my arms And into my face. Сухая волна Уходит из рук И с силой в лицо Кидается вдруг. I may load and unload Again and again Till I fill the whole shed, And what have I then? А после носить Мешки на спине. Заполнить сарай. – Зачем это мне? �Содержание Next to nothing for weight, And since they grew duller From contact with earth, Next to nothing for color. Вес вовсе не вес. Цвет вовсе не цвет. И зрелища нет. И выгоды нет. Next to nothing for use. But a crop is a crop, And who’s to say where The harvest shall stop? И все же, есть сбор. И все же, есть жнец. И кто скажет, где Сей жатве конец? Перевод Т. Стамовой Questions and Tasks for the Analysis of the Poem 1. What is Robert Frost’s persistent focus in poetry? 2. Does this poem serve a good example of Robert Frost’s typical combination of casual subject and profound message? 3. What is the genre of the poem? 4. Analyse the metre of the poem. Is it regular syllabic meter? How many beats are there in each line? How does it contribute to the mood of the poem? Does the form correlate with the content? 5. What is the poem about? Is the theme explicit or implied? 6. Analyse similes and metaphors used in the poem. What do they tell us about the speaker’s attitude to what he is doing? 7. How does the fact that dry leaves are being gathered to “fill the whole shed” foreshadow the philosophic meaning of the poem? 8. How does the poet describe the leaves? What is the role of repetition in this description? Find the examples of repetition in the whole poem. What purpose does this device serve? 9. How does the last stanza illustrate the overall theme of the poem? What is the key idea Robert Frost implies in the image of “harvest”? Does he speak about the process or the result, or both? 10. Why isn’t the speaker happy about the “crop”? What do the useless leaves symbolise? �Содержание Edward Estlin Commings (1894–1962) As one of the most innovative poets of his time, Edward Estlin Cummings experimented with poetic form and language to create a distinct personal style which is immediately recognized by the liberal use of lowercase letters and acrobatic word arrangement. Cummings’s name is often turned into “e. e. cummings” in the mistaken belief that the poet legally changed his name to lowercase letters only. Cummings used capital letters only irregularly in his verse and did not object when publishers began lowercasing his name, but he himself capitalized his name in his signature and in the title pages of original editions of his books. Commings wrote avant-garde poems in which conventional punctuation and syntax were ignored in favor of a dynamic use of language. He revised grammatical rules to suit his own purposes, assigning his own private meanings to words. Readers benefit from reading his poems both verbally and visually. A typical Ccummings’ poem is compact and precise, employing a few key words eccentrically placed on the page. Some of these words were invented by the poet. Despite their nontraditional form, Cummings’ poems came to be popular with many readers. They focused on universal ideas of love, childhood, and nature. e. e. commings was a lyricist, a modern cavalier love poet. Some of his love poems are frankly erotic and were meant to shock the Puritanical sensibilities of the early 20th century. Alongside his lyrical celebrations of love, nature, and imagination e. e. commings also wrote satirical poems denouncing urban and political life. His attacks on the mass mind, conventional patterns of thought, and society’s restrictions on free expression, were born of his strong commitment to the individual. Cummings satirized what he called “mostpeople,” that is, the herd mentality found in modern society. Pity this Busy Monster, Manunkind Не сострадай больному бизнесмонстру Pity this busy monster, manunkind, Не сострадай больному бизнесмонстру, not. Progress is a comfortable disease – your victim (death and life safely beyond) бесчеловечеству. Прогресс – болезнь приятная: предавшийся безумству plays with the bigness of his littleness – electrons deify one razorblade into a mountainrange; lenses extend гигантом карлик мнит себя всю жизнь – рой электронов чтит, как гор гряду, лезвие бритвы; линзы увеличат unwish through curving wherewhen till unwish returns on its unself. A world of made is not a world of born -pity poor flesh невласть немысли и согнут в дугу где-и-когда, вернув немысль в неличность. Мир «сделано» не есть мир «рождено» – and trees, poor stars and stones, but never this fine specimen of hypermagital жалей живую тварь, любую, кроме вот этой, мнящей, что она над всеми �Содержание ultraomnipotence. We doctors know владычествует. Мы, врачи, давно a hopeless case if-listen: there’s a hell of a good universe next door; let’s go рукой махнули – слушай: за углом чертовски славный мир, ей-ей; идём Перевод В. Британишского Questions and Tasks for the Analysis of the Poem 1. What is Edward Commings’ literary reputation? 2. What theme does he develop in this poem? What is the author’s idea? 3. What metaphors are used in the first lines of the poem? How do the epithets “busy” and “comfortable” develop the images? 4. What words exemplify the concept of progress? What words does the poet use to create the picture of nature? 5. Analyse the words composed by the poet. What are the word-building means he uses? What meaning do they accentuate? 6. Find the examples of non-standard use of grammar. What is the author’s purpose in the violation of grammar rules? 7. What is the general mood of the poem? What helps to define it? 8. Does the shape of the poem contribute to its content? 9. Who are the “doctors” the speaker identifies himself with at the end of the poem? Is the speaker sympathetic or resentful to mankind? Does his attitude remain the same throughout the poem? 10. What is the role of initial and final imperative sentences? 11. Analyse the message of the poem. Is there any way to stop progress and return to nature? �Содержание Dylan Thomas (1914–1953) Dylan Thomas is one of the most well-known and influential poets of the twentieth century. He possessed a tremendous talent that made him a literary sensation at a relatively young age. However, his personal life was often disappointing. The estimation of the work has often been colored by an estimation of the man. Thomas’s biography was dominated by numerous unflattering reminiscences concerning the poet's drinking, debauching and philandering during his last years in America. The legend tells about a hard-drinking Welsh bard, a romantic artist at odds with the modern world. Attempting to define himself Thomas said, “One: I am a Welshman; two: I am a drunkard; three: I am a lover of the human race, especially of women.” Thomas was a skilled reader of his own poetry which is notoriously lyrical. There is no doubt that the sound of language is central to Thomas’ style. His poems are written in tight rhyme schemes reminiscent of ballads and nursery rhymes. A typical feature in most of Thomas’ poetry is conflict between the content and the structure of the poem. Nevertheless, it is the music of his poems, as much as their themes of lost innocence, nostalgia for childhood and death, which has proved so seductive to readers and listeners. Thomas was not concerned with exhibiting themes of social and intellectual issues. His writing has a lot in common with the Romantic tradition particularly in its emphasis on imagination, emotion, intuition, spontaneity, and organic form. He uses symbols and images of nature to create a feeling of love towards life and humanity. Do Not Go Gentle Into That Good Night Не уходи покорно в сумрак смерти Do not go gentle into that good night, Old age should burn and rave at close of day; Rage, rage against the dying of the light. Не следуй мирно в даль, где света нет, Пусть гневом встретит старость свой конец. Бунтуй, бунтуй, когда слабеет свет. Though wise men at their end know dark is right, Because their words had forked no lightning they Do not go gentle into that good night. Хоть знают мудрецы, что тьма – ответ На свет всех слов, не следует мудрец Безропотно туда, где света нет. Good men, the last wave by, crying how bright Their frail deeds might have danced in a green bay, Rage, rage against the dying of the light. И праведник, сдержавший свой обет Нести добро как солнечный венец, Рыдает зло, когда слабеет свет. Wild men who caught and sang the sun in flight, And learn, too late, they grieved it on its way, Do not go gentle into that good night. Дикарь, свободный человек, поэт, Прекрасного певец, лучей ловец, Не побредет туда, где света нет. Grave men, near death, who see with blinding sight Blind eyes could blaze like meteors and be gay, Rage, rage against the dying of the light. Увидев перед смертью рой комет Сквозь слепоту всех лет былых, слепец Бунтует, если угасает свет. �Содержание And you, my father, there on the sad height, Curse, bless, me now with your fierce tears, I pray. Do not go gentle into that good night. Rage, rage against the dying of the light. Ты не на склоне – на вершине лет. Встреть гневом смерть, прошу тебя, отец. Не следуй мирно в даль, где света нет. Бунтуй, бунтуй, когда слабеет свет. Перевод А. Берлиной Questions and Tasks for the Analysis of the Poem 1. What is the form of the poem? What atmosphere is created by this ballad-like style? How do the subject and the form interact? 2. Who is the speaker of the poem? Who does the speaker address? 3. What does “good night” in the first line mean? Analyse other metaphors of the first tercet. 4. What examples does the speaker give to illustrate people’s resistance to death? Why does he choose “wise”, “good”, “wild” and “grave” men? Describe the main features of each category of people. Why does the poet arrange the adjectives in this order? 5. What is the attitude of “wise men” to the approaching death? Analyse the imagery in the second tercet. What does “to fork lightning” mean? 6. How do “good men” face death? Interpret the extended image of the ocean. 7. What is the reaction of “wild men” towards death? What does “the sun” stand for? What “grieves” the sun in the actions of “wild men”? 8. Interpret the two meanings of the word “grave” in the fifth tercet. Why does the poet focus on blindness as the feature of “grave men”? What does it symbolyse? Analyse the simile employed by the poet. 9. What is the role of oxymoron in the last stanza? What words and phrases create the climax of the poem? 10. What is the general tone of the poem? What phonetic expressive means add to the emotional effect of the poem? 11. What words bring out the contrast in the whole poem? What concepts are contrasted? How does the contrast highlight the theme of the poem? 12. What is the main idea of the poem? Does it present a conventional point of view? Do you support the author’s appeal? �Содержание Dorothy Parker (1893–1967) As with many literary figures, Parker’s life was filled with drama and personal darkness, which often came through in her writing which is known for its sharp wit and cynicism. Though she maintained high popularity and a steady employment in popular periodicals, theatres and film studios, the pattern of depression, affairs, suicide attempts and recovery would continue throughout Parker’s life. It seems ironic that a woman so drawn to pessimism and drinking, who had attempted suicide at least four times, lived into her seventies. Though Parker’s works are full of morbid thoughts and images of isolation, degradation and loneliness it is her many-sided humor, tenderness and pathos that readers pay attention to. The targets of Parker’s satire are the upper class, the shallow and boring, the self-pitying, the selfish, the envious and the jealous. Her major themes are universal and timeless: human frailties, social conventions, middle-class complacency, disintegration of relationships, unrequited love, and the women’s emotional dependency upon men. That Parker was a feminist is undeniable. Her voice is confined for the most part to women and what was important to them. Critics often described her poetry as sentimental, trivial, and melodramatic. Parker’s poems are written in rhymed and metered stanzas. Her romantic lyrical ballads are rich with imagery and symbolism, though her favourite devices are paradox, exaggeration, repetition, clichéd speech, epigrams, irony and sarcasm. Frustration Разочарование If I had a shiny gun, I could have a world of fun Speeding bullets through the brains Of the folk who give me pains; Когда б имела пистолет, так развлекла бы целый свет и враз мозги повышибала всем, от которых пострадала. Or had I some poison gas, I could make the moments pass Bumping off a number of People whom I do not love. Имей я ядовитый газ, так от меня б никто не спас всю ту немалую ораву, что мне на свете не по нраву. But I have no lethal weapon – Thus does Fate our pleasure step on! So they still are quick and well Who should be, by rights, in hell. Но нет оружия в руках, и тем намерениям – крах, и жизнь покуда не поблекла для тех, кому дорога в пекло. (И радостно живут сегодня все кандидаты в преисподню). Перевод В. Кормана �Содержание Questions for the Analysis of the Poem 1. What is Dorothy Parker’s literary reputation? Does the poem serve a typical example of her style? 2. What is the theme of the poem? Does it deal with physical or spiritual human experience, or both? 3. What is the form of the poem? What is this kind of metre reminiscent of? Is it suitable for children reading? 4. What pictures does the poet use to illustrate the vigor and force of the speaker’s feeling? 5. What is the general mood of the poem? Can the poem be taken seriously? What device foregrounds the author’s irony? 6. What is the role of personification in the last stanza? Why does the author shift from the first to the third person? 7. Does the poem focus on personal experience or human condition in general? What is the message of the poem? �Содержание Allen Ginsberg (1926–1997) Allen Ginsberg is one of the 20th century’s most influential poets. He is regarded as a founding father of the Beat Movement and an American artistic icon. As a leading member of the Beat Generation Allen Ginsberg promoted free thought and expression over cultural conformity. His works present the bleak urban landscapes focusing on poverty and despair of people living outside the mainstream. They were a generation that felt they could never settle into the lives of corporate jobs and nuclear families – ordinarily the ideal of men of the post-war era. A Supermarket in California was one of his first experiments with the long line form which would become Ginsberg’s trademark style. Ginsberg’s use of varying lengths of line and rhythm was inspired by Walt Whitman, who is considered to be America’s first original poet. In subject matter Ginsberg continued Whitman’s poetic attack on social conventions by writing about the consequences of corporate industrial growth and consumerism. A Supermarket in California What thoughts I have of you tonight, Walt Whitman, for I walked down the sidestreets under the trees with a headache self-conscious looking at the full moon. In my hungry fatigue, and shopping for images, I went into the neon fruit supermarket, dreaming of your enumerations! What peaches and what penumbras! Whole families shopping at night! Aisles full of husbands! Wives in the avocados, babies in the tomatoes! – and you, Garcia Lorca, what were you doing down by the watermelons? I saw you, Walt Whitman, childless, lonely old grubber, poking among the meats in the refrigerator and eyeing the grocery boys. I heard you asking questions of each: Who killed the pork chops? What price bananas? Are you my Angel? I wandered in and out of the brilliant stacks of cans following you, and followed in my imagination by the store detective. We strode down the open corridors together in our solitary fancy tasting artichokes, possessing every frozen delicacy, and never passing the cashier. Where are we going, Walt Whitman? The doors close in a hour. Which way does your beard point tonight? (I touch your book and dream of our odyssey in the supermarket and feel absurd.) Will we walk all night through solitary streets? The trees add shade to shade, lights out in the houses, we'll both be lonely. Will we stroll dreaming of the lost America of love past blue automobiles in driveways, home to our silent cottage? Ah, dear father, graybeard, lonely old courage-teacher, what America did you have when Charon quit poling his ferry and you got out on a �Содержание smoking bank and stood watching the boat disappear on the black waters of Lethe? Супермаркет в Калифорнии Этим вечером, слоняясь по переулкам с больной головой и застенчиво глядя на луну, как я думал о тебе, Уолт Уитмен! Голодный, усталый я шел покупать себе образы и забрел под неоновый свод супермаркета и вспомнил перечисленья предметов в твоих стихах. Что за персики! Что за полутона! Покупатели вечером целыми семьями! Проходы набиты мужьями! Жены у гор авокадо, дети среди помидоров! – и ты, Гарсия Лорка, что ты делал среди арбузов? Я видел, как ты, Уолт Уитмен, бездетный старый ниспровергатель, трогал мясо на холодильнике и глазел на мальчишек из бакалейного. Я слышал, как ты задавал вопросы: Кто убил поросят? Сколько стоят бананы? Ты ли это, мой ангел? Я ходил за тобой по блестящим аллеям консервных банок, и за мною ходил магазинный сыщик. Мы бродили с тобой, одинокие, мысленно пробуя артишоки, наслаждаясь всеми морожеными деликатесами, и всегда избегали кассиршу. Куда мы идем, Уолт Уитмен? Двери закроются через час. Куда сегодня ведет твоя борода? (Я беру твою книгу и мечтаю о нашей одиссее по супермаркету, и чувствую – все это вздор.) Так что, мы будем бродить всю ночь по пустынным улицам? Деревья бросают тени на тени, в домах гаснет свет, мы одни. Что же, пойдём домой мимо спящих синих автомобилей, мечтая об утраченной Америке любви? О, дорогой отец, старый седобородый одинокий учитель мужества, какая была у тебя Америка, когда Харон перевез тебя на дымящийся берег и ты стоял и смотрел, как теряется лодка в черных струях Леты? Перевод А. Сергеева Questions for the Analysis of the Poem 1. What do you know about the Beat Generation cultural movement? How did it influence the poetic form and subject matter? 2. Interpret the title of the poem. What does the indefinite article suggest? �Содержание 3. Where is the scene of the poem set? What is the author’s purpose in contrasting urban landscape and natural world? 4. When do the events happen? Why does the poet choose this time of the day? What does the full moon symbolyse? 5. Why does the poet go to the “neon fruit supermarket”? What does “shopping for images” mean? What is he looking for? What does the diversity of supermarket commodities fail to substitute? 6. What impression is created by the enumeration used in the first stanza? What sentence type prevails? 7. The poet sees two famous literary figures in the supermarket. Who are they? Who becomes the poet’s companion? Underline the words and expressions the poet uses to describe Walt Whitman. Can you define Ginsberg’s poem as an ode to his poetic hero? 8. The poem is an example of free verse. How does the structure of the poem contribute to its general atmosphere and tone? 9. Define the speaker’s mood. Is he calm, sad, disturbed, disappointed or indignant? What is the reason for this attitude? How does the tone change within the poem? How does the word choice reflect the poet’s growing pessimism in the last stanza? 10.What is the role of epithets in the poem? 11.Ginsberg ends the poem comparing America to the mythological Hades. Charon was the guardian of Hades who would lead souls across the River Styx to their eternity. Lethe was another river that ran through Hades. The river Lethe, in Greek mythology, would cause complete forgetfulness for those that drank from its waters. Interpret the mythological allusions in the poem. What does the poet state about Walt Whitman, himself and the modern world with the help of intertextuality? 12.What is the message of the poem? �Содержание Tom Clark (born 1941) Tom Clark has worked as a poetry editor, writer and teacher in both America and England. Clark is also a respected writer in such genres of literature as biography, literary criticism, essays, novels and drama. He has written many books on sports and popular culture. Clark possesses a wistful yet ultimately optimistic sense of observation. Specific details and metaphors are arranged in his poems in service of a deep message, delivered with wit and sophistication. Clark uses a conversational pattern in his poems which are often elegiac in tone. They are thought-demanding and inspiring. Clark’s poetry has been consistently attentive to form. He focuses on the arrangement of lines treating the page as imaginative space, a framing device for words. Poem Like musical instruments Abandoned in a field The parts of your feelings Are starting to know a quiet The pure conversion of your Life into art seems destined Never to occur You don’t mind You feel spiritual and alert As the air must feel Turning into sky aloft and blue You feel like You’ll never feel like touching anything or anyone Again And then you do Questions for the Analysis of the Poem 1. What is the poem about? 2. Who is the speaker in the poem? What effect is produced by the pronoun “you”? 3. Analyse the imagery of the poem. What devices join in? 4. Mark the case of non-standard grammar. What was the author’s purpose in breaking the rules? 5. Where does the author make pauses? What words are emphasized by them? 6. Interpret the end of the poem. What implication is contained in the last line? 7. Does the shape of the poem contribute to its overall effect? 8. What is the message of the poem? Poems for Self-Guided Analysis �Содержание Poems for Self-Guided Analysis On the World by Francis Quarles (1592–1644) Holy Sonnets, Sonnet X by John Donne (1572–1631) The world’s an Inn; and I her guest. I eat; I drink; I take my rest. My hostess, nature, does deny me Nothing, wherewith she can supply me; Where, having stayed a while, I pay Her lavish bills, and go my way. Death, be not proud, though some have called thee Mighty and dreadful, for thou are not so; For those whom thou think’st thou dost overthrow Die not, poor Death, nor yet canst thou kill me. From rest and sleep, which but thy pictures be, Much pleasure; then from thee much more must flow, And soonest our best men with thee do go, Rest of their bones, and soul’s delivery. Thou’art slave to fate, chance, kings, and desperate men, And dost with poison, war, and sickness dwell, And poppy’or charms can make us sleep as well And better than thy stroke; why swell’st thou then? One short sleep past, we wake eternally, And death shall be no more; Death, thou shalt die. Ozymandias by Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792–1822) The New Colossus by Emma Lazarus (1849–1887) I met a traveller from an antique land Who said: “Two vast and trunkless legs of stone Stand in the desert. Near them, on the sand, Half sunk, a shattered visage lies, whose frown, And wrinkled lip, and sneer of cold command, Tell that its sculptor well those passions read Which yet survive, stamped on these lifeless things, The hand that mocked them and the heart that fed: And on the pedestal these words appear: ‘My name is Ozymandias, king of kings: Look on my works, ye Mighty, and despair!’ Nothing beside remains. Round the decay Of that colossal wreck, boundless and bare The lone and level sands stretch far away.” Not like the brazen giant of Greek fame, With conquering limbs astride from land to land; Here at our sea-washed, sunset gates shall stand A mighty woman with a torch, whose flame Is the imprisoned lightning, and her name MOTHER OF EXILES. From her beacon-hand Glows world-wide welcome; her mild eyes command The air-bridged harbor that twin cities frame. “Keep, ancient lands, your storied pomp!” cries she With silent lips. “Give me your tired, your poor, Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free, The wretched refuse of your teeming shore. Send these, the homeless, tempest-tost to me, I lift my lamp beside the golden door! ” I’m nobody by Emily Dickinson (1830–1886) Parting By Emily Dickinson (1830–1886) I’m nobody! Who are you? Are you nobody, too? Then there’s a pair of us – don’t tell! They’d advertise – you know! My life closed twice before its close; It yet remains to see If Immortality unveil A third event to me, So huge, so hopeless to conceive, As these that twice befell. How dreary to be somebody! �Содержание How public like a frog To tell one’s name the livelong day To an admiring bog! Parting is all we know of heaven, And all we need of hell. Never Seek to Tell Thy Love by William Blake (1757–1827) The Three Arrows by Edward Fitzgerald (1809–1983) Porcia’s Song Never seek to tell thy love Love that never told can be; For the gentle wind doth move Silently invisibly. I told my love I told my love I told her all my heart Trembling cold in ghastly fears. Ah! she did depart! Soon after she was gone from me A traveler came by Silently invisibly: He took her with a sigh. OF all the shafts to Cupid’s bow, The first is tipp’d with fire; All bare their bosoms to the blow And call the wound Desire. Love’s second is a poison’d dart, And Jealousy is named: Which carries poison to the heart Desire had first inflamed. The last of Cupid’s arrows all With heavy lead is set: That vainly weeping lovers call Repentance, or Regret. Never for Society by Emily Dickinson (1830–1886) We Outgrow Love by Emily Dickinson (1830–1886) Never for Society He shall seek in vain – Who His own acquaintance Cultivate – Of Men Wiser Men may weary – But the Man within We outgrow love, like other things And put it in the Drawer – Till it an Antique fashion shows – Like Costumes Grandsires wore. Never knew Satiety – Better entertain Than could Border Ballad – Or Biscayan Hymn – Neither introduction Need You – unto Him – Who Has not Found the Heaven – Below – by Emily Dickinson (1830–1886) Who has not found the Heaven – below – Will fail of it above – For Angels rent the House next ours, Wherever we remove – The Best Thing in the World by Elizabeth Barrett Browning (1806–1861) Remember by Christina Rossetti (1830–1894) What’s the best thing in the world ? June-rose, by May-dew impearled; Sweet south-wind, that means no rain; Truth, not cruel to a friend; Remember me when I am gone away, Gone far away into the silent land; When you can no more hold me by the hand, Nor I half turn to go yet turning stay. �Содержание Pleasure, not in haste to end; Beauty, not self-decked and curled Till its pride is over-plain; Light, that never makes you wink; Memory, that gives no pain; Love, when, so, you're loved again. What's the best thing in the world ? – Something out of it, I think. Remember me when no more day by day You tell me of our future that you plann’d: Only remember me; you understand It will be late to counsel then or pray. Yet if you should forget me for a while And afterwards remember, do not grieve: For if the darkness and corruption leave A vestige of the thoughts that once I had, Better by far you should forget and smile Than that you should remember and be sad. We Wear the Mask by Paul Laurence Dunbar (1872–1906) When You Are Old by William Butler Yeats (1865–1939) We wear the mask that grins and lies, It hides our cheeks and shades our eyes, – This debt we pay to human guile; With torn and bleeding hearts we smile, And mouth with myriad subtleties. When you are old and grey and full of sleep, And nodding by the fire, take down this book, And slowly read, and dream of the soft look Your eyes had once, and of their shadows deep; Why should the world be over-wise, In counting all our tears and sighs? Nay, let them only see us, while We wear the mask. We smile, but, O great Christ, our cries To thee from tortured souls arise. We sing, but oh the clay is vile Beneath our feet, and long the mile; But let the world dream otherwise, We wear the mask! How many loved your moments of glad grace, And loved your beauty with love false or true, But one man loved the pilgrim soul in you, And loved the sorrows of your changing face; And bending down beside the glowing bars, Murmur, a little sadly, how Love fled And paced upon the mountains overhead And hid his face amid a crowd of stars. An Old Song Resung by William Butler Yeats (1865–1939) Down by the salley gardens my love and I did meet; She passed the salley gardens with little snow-white feet. She bid me take love easy as the leaves grow on the tree; But I, being young and foolish, with her would not agree. In a field by the river my love and I did stand, And on my leaning shoulder she laid her snow-white hand. She bid me take life easy as the grass grows on the weirs; But I was young and foolish, and now am full of tears. ’Never shall a young man, Thrown into despair �Содержание The Kiss by Sara Teasdale (1884–1933) I Shall not Care by Sara Teasdale (1884–1933) I hoped that he would love me, And he has kissed my mouth, But I am like a stricken bird That cannot reach the south. When I am dead and over me bright April Shakes out her rain-drenched hair, Tho’ you should lean above me broken-hearted, I shall not care. For though I know he loves me, To-night my heart is sad; His kiss was not so wonderful As all the dreams I had. I shall have peace, as leafy trees are peaceful When rain bends down the bough, And I shall be more silent and cold-hearted Than you are now. Do not stand at my grave and weep by Mary Elizabeth Frye (1905–2004) The Snow Man By Wallace Stevens (1879–1955) Do not stand at my grave and weep, I am not there; I do not sleep. I am a thousand winds that blow, I am the diamond glints on snow, I am the sun on ripened grain, I am the gentle autumn rain. When you awaken in the morning’s hush I am the swift uplifting rush Of quiet birds in circling flight. I am the soft star-shine at night. Do not stand at my grave and cry, I am not there; I did not die. One must have a mind of winter To regard the frost and the boughs Of the pine-trees crusted with snow; And have been cold a long time To behold the junipers shagged with ice, The spruces rough in the distant glitter Of the January sun; and not to think Of any misery in the sound of the wind, In the sound of a few leaves, Which is the sound of the land Full of the same wind That is blowing in the same bare place For the listener, who listens in the snow, And, nothing himself, beholds Nothing that is not there and the nothing that is. The Door In The Dark by Robert Frost (1874–1963) General Review Of The Sex Situation by Dorothy Parker (1893–1967) In going from room to room in the dark, I reached out blindly to save my face, But neglected, however lightly, to lace My fingers and close my arms in an arc. A slim door got in past my guard, And hit me a blow in the head so hard Woman wants monogamy; Man delights in novelty. Love is woman’s moon and sun; Man has other forms of fun. Woman lives but in her lord; Count to ten, and man is bored. �Содержание I had my native simile jarred. So people and things don't pair any more With what they used to pair with before. Dreams by Langston Hughes (1902–1967) With this the gist and sum of it, What earthly good can come of it? Hold fast to dreams For if dreams die Life is a broken-winged bird That cannot fly. I have eaten the plums that were in the icebox Hold fast to dreams For when dreams go Life is a barren field Frozen with snow. and which you were probably saving for breakfast As Is The Sea Marvelous by e. e. commings (1894–1962) Forgive me they were delicious so sweet and so cold Every Night I Look up at the Freckled Sky by e. e. commings as is the sea marvelous from god’s hands which sent her forth to sleep upon the world and the earth withers the moon crumbles one by one stars flutter into dust but the sea does not change and she goes forth out of hands and she returns into hands and is with sleep… love, the breaking of your soul upon my lips This Is Just To Say by William Carlos Williams (1883–1963) every night i look up at the freckled sky and fall in love with the universe all over again. i will be counting the �Содержание Hope by Tom Clark (born 1941) slowly it unravels strings falling apart going this way and that such a multitude of colors before me yarn falling to and fro surrounding this form twisting slowly round this corpse such a wonderous sight before my dim eyes slowly, it drifts away away from my shaking hands and my aching heart like snow it drifts ...like snow... lazily, it expands into the twilight filling the dark corners in front with fleeting glimpses of beauty and then is gone stars for the rest of my life. Narcissus by Alice Oswald Once I was half flower, half self, That invisible self whose absence inhabits mirrors, That invisible flower that is always inwardly, Groping up through us, a kind of outswelling weakness, Yes once I was half frail, half glittering, Continually emerging from the store of the self itself, Always staring at rivers, always Nodding and leaning to one side, I came gloating up, And for a while I was half skin half breath, For a while I was neither one thing nor another, A waterflame, a variable man-woman of the verges, Wearing the last self-image I was left with Before my strenth went down down into the darkness For the best of the year and lies crumpled In a clot of sleep at the root of nothings all �Содержание SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Гальперин, И. Р. Стилистика английского языка : учебник для студентов институтов и факультетов иностранных языков / И. Р. Гальперин ; [вступ. ст. автора]. – [2-е изд., испр.]. – Москва : Высшая школа, 1977. – 332 с. 2. Обнорская, М. Е. Аналитическое чтение и интерпретация текста : учебное пособие для студентов, обучающихся по специальностям направления «Лингвистика и межкультурная коммуникация» : [на английском языке] / М. Е. Обнорская, Н. Н. Золина ; Барнаульский государственный педагогический университет, Лингвистический институт. – Барнаул : БГПУ, 2007. – 162 с. 3. Adler, M. J. How to Read a Book: The Classic Guide to Intelligent Reading / M. J. Adler, Ch. V. Doren. – Revised and Updated Edition. – New York : Touchstone, 1972. – 426 p. 4. Cambridge Paperback Encyclopedia / Ed. by David Crystal. – 2 edition. – Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 1994. – 506 p. 5. Cross, D. W. Propaganda: How Not To Be Bamboozled [Электронный ресурс]. – Режим доступа: http://kellimcbride.com/pdf/cross_propaganda.pdf, свободный. – Загл. с экрана (дата обращения: 16.10.2017). 6. Famous People – Biography [Электронный ресурс]. – Режим доступа: https:// www.biography.com/people, свободный. 7. Functional Styles of the English Language [Электронный ресурс]. – Режим доступа: http://irastraw.ru/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=64:2010-06-2816-40-01&catid=42:2010-06-22-19-46-16&Itemid=66, свободный. – Загл. с экрана (дата обращения: 12.08.2017). 8. Goumovskaya, G. English for specific purposes. Publicistic style [Электронный ресурс] / G. Goumovskaya // Английский язык. – 2007. – № 6. – Электрон. версия печ. публ. – Режим доступа: http://eng.1september.ru/article.php?ID=200700609, свободный. – Загл. с экрана (дата обращения: 06.11.2017). 9. How to analyse a speech [Электронный ресурс]. – Режим доступа: http:// jorgenboge.wikidot.com/how-to-analyze-a-speech, свободный. – Загл. с экрана (дата обращения: 16.11.2017). 10.Landy, A. S. The Heath Introduction to Literature / A. S. Landy. – Fourth Edition. – Lexington, Massachusetts : D. H. Heath & Company, 1992. – 1142 p. 11.Lester, James D. A Writer’s Handbook. Style and Grammar / James D. Lester – Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Publishers, 1991. – 585 p. �Содержание 12.Manipulation through Words: Rhetorical Devices in Political Speeches [Электронный ресурс]. – Режим доступа: https://ru.scribd.com/document/267962121/Manipulationthrough-Words-Rhetorical-Devices-in-Political-Speeches, свободный. – Загл. с экрана (дата обращения: 28.11.2017). 13.PoemHunter.com [Электронный www.poemhunter.com/, свободный. 14.Poetry Foundation [Электронный www.poetryfoundation.org/, свободный. ресурс]. ресурс]. – Режим – Режим доступа: https:// доступа: https:// 15.Sparknotes: Today’s Most Popular Study Guides [Электронный ресурс]. – Режим доступа: http://www.sparknotes.com, свободный. 16.U.S. Presidents [Электронный ресурс]. – Режим доступа: http://www.history.com/ topics/us-presidents, свободный. 17.Wikipedia. The Free Encyclopedia [Электронный ресурс]. – Режим доступа: https:// www.wikipedia.org/, свободный. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Козлова, Любовь Александровна Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Further steps in text analysis Subject The topic of the resource 1. Языкознание. 2. Германские языки. 3. английский язык. 4. лингвостилистический анализ. 5. интерпретация текста. 6. жанровые особенности. Description An account of the resource Further steps in text analysis [Электронный ресурс] : учебное пособие / Л. А. Козлова, Л. Л. Шевченко ; Алтайский государственный педагогический университет. — Барнаул : АлтГПУ, 2018. — 268 с. Настоящее пособие предназначено для занятий со студентами V курса по лингвостилистическому анализу и интерпретации текстов различных жанров: эссе, биографии, автобиографии, короткого рассказа, публичной речи, научного текста и поэзии. С учетом того, что начальные навыки лингвостилистического анализа закладываются на IV курсе, данное пособие ставит своей целью расширение знаний и закрепление навыков интерпретации текстов различных жанров, выявление жанровых особенностей текста и тех стилистических приемов, которые формируют в своей совокупности идиостиль конкретного автора. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Козлова, Любовь Александровна Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Алтайский государственный педагогический университет, 2018 Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Алтайский государственный педагогический университет Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 21.05.2018 Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Шевченко, Людмила Леонидовна Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource ©Алтайский государственный педагогический университет, 2018 Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource pdf, exe Language A language of the resource русский Type The nature or genre of the resource Учебное пособие Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context <a href="http://library.altspu.ru/dc/pdf/kozlova1.pdf" target="_blank">http://library.altspu.ru/dc/pdf/kozlova1.pdf<br /></a><a href="http://library.altspu.ru/dc/exe/kozlova1.exe" target="_blank">http://library.altspu.ru/dc/exe/kozlova1.exe</a> http://books.altspu.ru/files/original/34/113/_-1[650].png 20130089c507623a06d61a798edd989b http://books.altspu.ru/files/original/34/113/borodulina.pdf 8d0346a72c4fc98bfbe809bfcd430d5f PDF Text Text Содержание �Содержание Об издании Основной титульный экран Дополнительный титульный экран непериодического издания – 1 Дополнительный титульный экран непериодического издания – 2 �Содержание МИНИСТЕРСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ И НАУКИ РОССИЙСКОЙ ФЕДЕРАЦИИ Федеральное государственное бюджетное образовательное учреждение высшего образования «Алтайский государственный педагогический университет» (ФГБОУ ВО «АлтГПУ») Т.П. Бородулина, Т.Л. Платунова Правовое регулирование труда педагогических работников в Российской Федерации Учебное пособие Барнаул ФГБОУ ВО «АлтГПУ» 2018 Об издании - 1, 2, 3. ISBN 978-5-88210-918-8 �Содержание УДК 37:34(075) ББК 74.04(2Рос)к1я73+67.405.1я73 Б834 Бородулина, Т.П. Правовое регулирование труда педагогических работников в Российской Федерации [Электронный ресурс] : учебное пособие / Т.П. Бородулина, Т.Л. Платунова. – Барнаул : АлтГПУ, 2018. – Систем. требования: PC не ниже класса Intel Celeron 2 ГГц ; 512 Мb RAM ; Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 ; Adobe Acrobat Reader ; SVGA монитор с разрешением 1024х768 ; мышь. ISBN 978-5-88210-918-8 Рецензенты: Бармин В.А., доктор исторических наук, профессор (Алтайский государственный педагогический университет); Казанцева Е.А., кандидат юридических наук, доцент (Алтайский государственный университет); Матис В.И., доктор социологических наук, профессор (Алтайский государственный институт культуры) Учебное пособие представляет собой систематизированное изложение проблемы правового регулирования отношений в сфере труда педагогических работников в РФ. В учебном пособии представлен методический материал по ключевым темам курса. Учебное пособие предназначено для студентов и магистрантов образовательных организаций высшего образования по направлению «Педагогическое образование». Пособие может быть использовано при подготовке к практическим занятиям, а также преподавателями при подготовке лекций по трудовому праву. Рекомендовано к изданию редакционно-издательским советом АлтГПУ 29.03.2018 г. Текстовое (символьное) электронное издание. Системные требования: PC не ниже класса Intel Celeron 2 ГГц ; 512 Мb RAM ; Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 ; Adobe Acrobat Reader ; SVGA монитор с разрешением 1024х768 ; мышь. Об издании - 1, 2, 3. �Содержание Электронное издание создано при использовании программного обеспечения Sunrav BookOffice. Объём издания - 5150 КБ. Дата подписания к использованию: 28.05.2018 Федеральное государственное бюджетное образовательное учреждение высшего образования «Алтайский государственный педагогический университет» (ФГБОУ ВО «АлтГПУ») ул. Молодежная, 55, г. Барнаул, 656031 Тел. (385-2) 36-82-71, факс (385-2) 24-18-72 е-mail: rector@altspu.ru, http://www.altspu.ru Об издании - 1, 2, 3. �Содержание Содержание Введение Глава 1. Трудовой договор с педагогическим работником 1.1. Право на занятие педагогической деятельностью 1.2. Особенности заключения трудового договора с педагогическим работником 1.3. Эффективный контракт 1.4. Отстранение работника от работы 1.5. Основания прекращения трудового договора с педагогическим работником Вопросы к главе 1 Глава 2. Рабочее время и время отдыха педагогических работников 2.1. Нормативное регулирование рабочего времени педагогических работников 2.2. Особенности отпуска для педагогических работников Вопросы к главе 2 Глава 3. Основные аспекты регулирования оплаты труда педагогических работников 3.1. Оплата труда педагогических работников: новые подходы 3.2. Стимулирующие выплаты для педагогических работников Вопросы к главе 3 Глава 4. Ответственность педагогических работников по российскому законодательству Глава 5. Охрана труда педагогических работников Список нормативно-правовых актов и использованной литературы Приложения Приложение 1 Приложение 2 Приложение 3 Приложение 4 Приложение 5 �Содержание Введение Пособие предназначено для студентов и магистрантов дневной и заочной формы обучения по направлению «Педагогическое образование» в рамках изучения курса «Правовое регулирование труда педагогических работников в РФ». Механизмы правового регулирования в области труда работников образовательных организаций привлекают внимание исследователей различных отраслей научного знания. Пособие позволяет разобраться студентам в правовых началах трудовых отношений в сфере функционирования образовательных организаций, уяснить иерархию и содержание норм в правовом регулировании труда педагогических работников в России. Материалы пособия содействуют формированию целостного представления как о специфике трудовых отношений в образовательных организациях, так и об особенностях государственного регулирования в сфере труда педагогических работников. В пособии рассмотрены вопросы заключения трудового договора с педагогическим работником, вопросы допуска к педагогической деятельности, особенности эффективного контракта, содержания трудового договора с педагогическим работником, вопросы ответственности педагогического работника. Учебное пособие содержит методический материал и приложения в целях эффективной организации самостоятельной работы студентов по дисциплине. Пособие подготовлено в соответствии с учебными планами бакалавриата и магистратуры по соответствующему направлению педагогического образования в системе высшего образования. �Содержание Глава 1. Трудовой договор с педагогическим работником 1.1. Право на занятие педагогической деятельностью 1.2. Особенности заключения трудового договора с педагогическим работником 1.3. Эффективный контракт 1.4. Отстранение работника от работы 1.5. Основания прекращения трудового договора с педагогическим работником Вопросы к главе 1 �Содержание 1.1. Право на занятие педагогической деятельностью Педагогическая деятельность – это деятельность по обучению и воспитанию граждан, которая осуществляется педагогическими работниками в соответствующих образовательных организациях различных уровней образования. Порядок определения образовательного ценза, который является условием допуска к педагогической деятельности, установлен в ст. 46 закона «Об образовании в РФ»1 (далее № 273-ФЗ), согласно которой право на занятие указанной деятельностью имеют лица, имеющие среднее профессиональное или высшее образование и отвечающие квалификационным требованиям, указанным в квалификационных справочниках, и (или) профессиональным стандартам. Квалификационные требования установлены в разделе «Квалификационные характеристики должностей работников образования» Единого квалификационного справочника должностей руководителей, специалистов и служащих, который утвержден Приказом Минздравсоцразвития России от 26.08.2010 № 761н. Номенклатура должностей педагогических работников организаций, осуществляющих образовательную деятельность, должностей руководителей образовательных организаций утверждена Постановлением Правительства РФ от 08.08.2013 № 6782 (приложение 1). Для работы в образовательных организациях определенных типов и видов требуется не только образование соответствующего уровня, но и специальная подготовка. За последние годы в РФ детализированы правила по допуску к педагогической деятельности. Так, образовательный процесс в специальной (коррекционной) образовательной организации для обучающихся, воспитанников с ограниченными возможностями здоровья осуществляется специалистами в области коррекционной педагогики, а также учителями, воспитателями, прошедшими соответствующую переподготовку по профилю деятельности указанной организации, что предусмотрено в п. 29 Типового положения о специальном (коррекционном) образовательном учреждении для обучающихся, воспитанников с ограниченными возможностями здоровья, утвержденного Постановлением Правительства РФ от 12.03.1997 № 288. Приговором суда педагогический работник может быть лишен права заниматься педагогической деятельностью. Лишение права занимать определенные должности или заниматься определенной деятельностью состоит в запрещении занимать должности на государственной службе, в органах местного самоуправления либо заниматься определенной профессиональной или иной деятельностью. Лишение права занимать определенные должности или заниматься определенной деятельностью устанавливается УК РФ на срок от одного года до пяти лет в качестве основного вида наказания и на срок от шести месяцев до трех лет – в качестве дополнительного (ч. 2 ст. 47). Статьи 150 и 151 УК РФ, посвященные вовлечению несовершеннолетнего в совершение преступления или в совершение антиобщественного действия, а также ст. 156 УК РФ, устанавливающая наказание за неисполнение обязанностей по воспитанию несовершеннолетнего, в качестве одной из санкций предусматривают лишение права занимать определенные должности или заниматься определенной деятельностью на срок до трех лет. С педагогическими работниками, которым приговором суда запрещено заниматься педагогической деятельностью, трудовой договор прекращается на основании п. 4 ч. 1 ст. 83 ТК РФ. Согласно комментируемой статье к педагогической деятельности не допускаются лица, имеющие или имевшие в прошлом судимость за отдельные преступления, к числу которых относятся: преступления против жизни и здоровья (гл. 16 УК РФ), свободы, чести и достоинства личности (гл. 17 УК РФ) (за исключением незаконного помещения в психиатрический стационар, клеветы и оскорбления), половой 1 Об образовании в Р Ф [Электронный ресурс]: Федеральный закон от 29 декабря 2012 ФЗ-№ 273 (в ред. 17.07.2017). Электрон. дан. Доступ из информ.-правовой системы «КонсультантПлюс» (версия 2017). Постановление Правительства Р Ф от 08.08.2013 № 678 [Электронный ресурс]. Электрон. дан. Доступ из информ.-правовой системы «КонсультантПлюс» (версия 2017). 2 �Содержание неприкосновенности и половой свободы личности (гл. 18 УК РФ), против семьи и несовершеннолетних (гл. 20 УК РФ), здоровья населения и общественной нравственности (гл. 25 УК РФ), основ конституционного строя и безопасности государства (гл. 29 УК РФ), против общественной безопасности (гл. 24 УК РФ), а также лица, подвергающиеся или подвергавшиеся уголовному преследованию (за исключением лиц, уголовное преследование в отношении которых прекращено по реабилитирующим основаниям) за совершение указанных преступлений. Абзац 3 ч. 2 ст. 331 и ст. 351.1 ТК означают, что к занятию педагогической деятельностью, иной деятельностью в сфере образования, воспитания, развития несовершеннолетних, организации их отдыха и оздоровления, медицинского обеспечения, социальной защиты и социального обслуживания, в сфере детскоюношеского спорта, культуры и искусства с участием несовершеннолетних не допускаются: - лица, имеющие судимость за совершение указанных в абз. 3 ч. 2 ст. 331 и ст. 351.1 ТК преступлений; - лица, имевшие судимость за совершение тяжких и особо тяжких из числа указанных в данных законоположениях преступлений, а также преступлений против половой неприкосновенности и половой свободы личности; - лица, имевшие судимость за совершение иных указанных в данных законоположениях преступлений, а также лица, уголовное преследование в отношении которых по обвинению в совершении указанных в данных законоположениях преступлений прекращено по нереабилитирующим основаниям, - постольку, поскольку на основе оценки опасности таких лиц для жизни, здоровья и нравственности несовершеннолетних обеспечивается соразмерность введенного ограничения целям государственной защиты прав несовершеннолетних. В ТК РФ вносятся изменения, которые нацелены на обеспечение баланса конституционно значимых ценностей применительно к ограничениям на занятие педагогической деятельностью, а также иной профессиональной деятельностью в сфере образования. Очевиден приоритет прав и интересов несовершеннолетних как нуждающихся в особой государственной защите. Факт совершения преступлений, указанных в законе – вне зависимости от каких бы то ни было обстоятельств – дает основание утверждать, что совершившие такие преступления лица представляют безусловную опасность для жизни, здоровья и нравственности несовершеннолетних. Законодатель справедливо учел эти обстоятельства. К педагогической деятельности, таким образом, а также иной профессиональной деятельности в сфере образования, воспитания, развития несовершеннолетних, организации их отдыха и оздоровления, медицинского обеспечения, социальной защиты и социального обслуживания, в сфере детскоюношеского спорта, культуры и искусства с участием несовершеннолетних во всяком случае не могут допускаться (а работающие – подлежат увольнению) лица, имеющие судимость за совершение указанных в абз. 3 ч. 2 ст. 331 и ст. 351.1 ТК преступлений, лица, имевшие судимость за совершение тяжких и особо тяжких из числа указанных в данных законоположениях преступлений, а также преступлений против половой неприкосновенности и половой свободы личности. Препятствием к осуществлению лицом педагогической деятельности является наличие неснятой и непогашенной судимости за умышленные тяжкие и особо тяжкие преступления. УК РФ предусматривает четыре категории преступлений. В зависимости от характера и степени общественной опасности деяния, предусмотренные УК РФ( статья 15), подразделяются на преступления небольшой тяжести, преступления средней тяжести, тяжкие преступления и особо тяжкие преступления. Преступлениями небольшой тяжести признаются умышленные и неосторожные деяния, за совершение которых �Содержание максимальное наказание, предусмотренное УК РФ, не превышает двух лет лишения свободы. Преступлениями средней тяжести признаются умышленные деяния, за совершение которых максимальное наказание, предусмотренное УК РФ, не превышает пяти лет лишения свободы, и неосторожные деяния, за совершение которых максимальное наказание, предусмотренное УК, превышает два года лишения свободы. Тяжкими преступлениями признаются умышленные деяния, за совершение которых максимальное наказание, предусмотренное УК РФ, не превышает 10 лет лишения свободы. Особо тяжкими преступлениями признаются умышленные деяния, за совершение которых УК РФ предусмотрено наказание в виде лишения свободы на срок свыше 10 лет или более строгое наказание1. При заключении трудового договора о работе в соответствующей образовательной организации лицо, поступающее на работу, обязано помимо прочих документов представить справку о наличии (отсутствии) судимости и (или) факта уголовного преследования либо о прекращении уголовного преследования по реабилитирующим основаниям. Запрещена педагогическая деятельность для лиц, признанных недееспособными в установленном федеральным законом порядке. В статье 29 ГК РФ предусматривается, что гражданин, который вследствие психического расстройства не может понимать значения своих действий или руководить ими, может быть признан судом недееспособным в порядке, установленном гражданским процессуальным законодательством. Над указанным гражданином устанавливается опека. Согласно ч. 2 ст. 281 ГПК РФ дело о признании гражданина недееспособным вследствие психического расстройства может быть возбуждено в суде на основании заявления членов его семьи, близких родственников (родителей, детей, братьев, сестер) независимо от совместного с ним проживания, органа опеки и попечительства, психиатрического или психоневрологического учреждения. Заявление о признании гражданина недееспособным подается в суд по месту жительства данного гражданина, а если гражданин помещен в психиатрическое или психоневрологическое учреждение – по месту нахождения этого учреждения. В заявлении о признании гражданина недееспособным должны быть изложены обстоятельства, свидетельствующие о наличии у гражданина психического расстройства, вследствие чего он не может понимать значения своих действий или руководить ими (ч. 2 ст. 282 ГПК РФ). Судья назначает для определения психического состояния гражданина судебно-психиатрическую экспертизу. При уклонении гражданина, в отношении которого возбуждено дело, от прохождения экспертизы суд в судебном заседании с участием прокурора и психиатра может вынести определение о принудительном направлении гражданина на судебно-психиатрическую экспертизу (ст. 283 ГПК РФ). Заявление о признании гражданина недееспособным суд рассматривает с участием самого гражданина, заявителя, прокурора, представителя органа опеки и попечительства. Гражданин, в отношении которого рассматривается дело о признании его недееспособным, должен быть вызван в судебное заседание, если это возможно по состоянию здоровья гражданина (ч. 1 ст. 284 ГПК РФ). Заявитель освобождается от уплаты издержек, связанных с рассмотрением заявления о признании гражданина недееспособным. Суд, установив, что лицо, подавшее заявление, действовало недобросовестно в целях заведомо необоснованного ограничения или лишения дееспособности гражданина, взыскивает с такого лица все издержки, связанные с рассмотрением дела (ч. 2 ст. 284 ГПК РФ). Решение суда, которым гражданин признан недееспособным, является основанием для назначения ему опекуна органом опеки и попечительства (ст. 285 ГПК РФ). Перечень заболеваний, при наличии которых лица не допускаются к педагогической деятельности, который должен утверждаться федеральным органом исполнительной власти, осуществляющим 1 Уголовный кодекс Р Ф от 1 января 1997 «КонсультантПлюс» (версия 2017). года [Электронный ресурс]. Электрон. дан. Доступ из информ.-правовой системы �Содержание функции по выработке государственной политики и нормативно-правовому регулированию в области здравоохранения, в настоящее время не разработан. До принятия указанного перечня следует руководствоваться Перечнем заболеваний, представляющих опасность для окружающих, утв. Постановлением Правительства РФ от 01.12.2004 № 7151. Согласно Постановлению Правительства РФ от 18.05.2011 № 394 «Об утверждении перечня отдельных видов профессиональной деятельности и деятельности, связанной с источником повышенной опасности, на занятие которыми устанавливаются ограничения для больных наркоманией» к педагогической деятельности, а также к деятельности, непосредственно связанной и непосредственно не связанной с образовательным процессом, в образовательных организациях не допускаются лица, больные наркоманией. Препятствием для занятия педагогической деятельностью является наличие острых и хронических заразных заболеваний, в том числе открытые формы туберкулеза легких, активный туберкулез легких без выделения микобактерий с мокротой, внелегочные формы туберкулеза с наличием свищей, бактериоурии, туберкулезная волчанка лица и рук. Согласно Перечню медицинских психиатрических противопоказаний для осуществления отдельных видов профессиональной деятельности и деятельности, связанной с источником повышенной опасности (утв. Постановлением Совета министров – Правительства РФ от 28.04.1993 № 377 «О реализации Закона Российской Федерации "О психиатрической помощи и гарантиях прав граждан при ее оказании"»), общими медицинскими психиатрическими противопоказаниями для осуществления работниками учебно-воспитательных учреждений, дошкольных учреждений, домов ребенка, детских домов, школ-интернатов, интернатов при школах педагогической деятельности являются хронические и затяжные психические расстройства с тяжелыми, стойкими или часто обостряющимися болезненными проявлениями. Для выявления заболеваний, препятствующих осуществлению педагогической деятельности, работники образовательных организаций всех типов и видов обязаны проходить предварительные при поступлении на работу и периодические медицинские осмотры, а также внеочередные медицинские осмотров по направлению работодателя. При выявлении заболеваний, препятствующих осуществлению педагогической деятельности, педагогические работники подлежат в соответствии со ст. 73 ТК переводу с их письменного согласия на другую имеющуюся у работодателя работу, не противопоказанную им по состоянию здоровья. Если педагогический работник, нуждающийся в соответствии с медицинским заключением во временном переводе на другую работу на срок до четырех месяцев, отказывается от перевода либо соответствующая работа у работодателя отсутствует, то работодатель обязан на весь указанный в медицинском заключении срок отстранить педагогического работника от работы с сохранением места работы (должности). Если в соответствии с медицинским заключением педагогический работник нуждается во временном переводе на другую работу на срок более четырех месяцев или в постоянном переводе, то при его отказе от перевода либо отсутствии у работодателя соответствующей работы трудовой договор прекращается в соответствии с п. 8 ч. 1 ст. 77 ТК РФ. В соответствии со ст. 15 федерального закона от 25.07.2002 № 114-ФЗ «О противодействии экстремистской деятельности» в целях обеспечения государственной и общественной безопасности по основаниям и в порядке, которые предусмотрены федеральным законом, лицу, участвовавшему в осуществлении экстремистской деятельности, по решению суда может быть ограничен доступ к определенным видам деятельности и, в частности, к работе в образовательных организациях. 1 Постановление Правительства Р Ф от 01.12.2004 № 715 [Электронный ресурс]. Электрон. дан. Доступ из информ.-правовой системы «КонсультантПлюс» (версия 2017). �Содержание Таким образом, к педагогической деятельности не допускаются лица: - лишенные права заниматься педагогической деятельностью в соответствии с вступившим в законную силу приговором суда; - имеющие или имевшие судимость, подвергавшиеся уголовному преследованию (за исключением лиц, уголовное преследование в отношении которых прекращено по реабилитирующим основаниям) за преступления против жизни и здоровья, свободы, чести и достоинства личности (за исключением незаконной госпитализации в медицинскую организацию, оказывающую психиатрическую помощь в стационарных условиях, и клеветы), половой неприкосновенности и половой свободы личности, против семьи и несовершеннолетних, здоровья населения и общественной нравственности, основ конституционного строя и безопасности государства, мира и безопасности человечества, а также против общественной безопасности, за исключением случаев, предусмотренных частью третьей настоящей статьи; (в ред. Федеральных законов от 31.12.2014 № 489-ФЗ, от 13.07.2015 № 237-ФЗ); - имеющие неснятую или непогашенную судимость за иные умышленные тяжкие и особо тяжкие преступления, не указанные в абзаце третьем статьи 46, признанные недееспособными в установленном федеральным законом порядке; - имеющие заболевания, предусмотренные перечнем, утверждаемым федеральным органом исполнительной власти, осуществляющим функции по выработке государственной политики и нормативно-правовому регулированию в области здравоохранения. Лица из числа указанных в абзаце третьем части второй статьи, имевшие судимость за совершение преступлений небольшой тяжести и преступлений средней тяжести против жизни и здоровья, свободы, чести и достоинства личности (за исключением незаконной госпитализации в медицинскую организацию, оказывающую психиатрическую помощь в стационарных условиях, и клеветы), семьи и несовершеннолетних, здоровья населения и общественной нравственности, основ конституционного строя и безопасности государства, мира и безопасности человечества, а также против общественной безопасности, и лица, уголовное преследование в отношении которых по обвинению в совершении этих преступлений прекращено по нереабилитирующим основаниям, могут быть допущены к педагогической деятельности при наличии решения комиссии по делам несовершеннолетних и защите их прав, созданной высшим исполнительным органом государственной власти субъекта Российской Федерации, о допуске их к педагогической деятельности. Внимание законодателя к проблеме допуска к педагогической деятельности позитивно сказывается на психолого-педагогической атмосфере образовательной организации и содействует защите и охране прав и свобод несовершеннолетних. �Содержание 1.2. Особенности заключения трудового договора с педагогическим работником Трудовой договор представляет собой соглашение между работодателем и работником, в соответствии с которым работодатель обязуется предоставить работнику работу по определенной трудовой функции, обеспечить условия труда, своевременно и в полном размере выплачивать заработную плату, а работник обязуется лично выполнять эту трудовую функцию и соблюдать действующие в организации правила внутреннего трудового распорядка (ст. 56 ТК РФ)1. Рассмотрим порядок заключения трудовых договоров с педагогическими работниками и особенности, которые при этом нужно учесть, а также внесение изменений в условия договоров. Согласно ст. 331 ТК РФ, как было рассмотрено в 1.1. данного пособия, к педагогической деятельности допускаются лица, имеющие образовательный ценз, который определяется в порядке, установленном типовыми положениями об образовательных учреждениях соответствующих типов и видов, утверждаемыми Правительством РФ, также рассмотрены ограничения и запреты в данной сфере. Согласно ст. 58 ТК РФ трудовые договоры могут заключаться либо на неопределенный, либо на определенный срок не более пяти лет (срочный трудовой договор). Считается, что если в трудовом договоре не оговорен срок его действия, то договор заключен на неопределенный срок. В том случае, когда трудовые отношения не могут быть установлены на неопределенный срок с учетом характера предстоящей работы или условий ее выполнения, заключается срочный трудовой договор. По истечении срока действия срочного трудового договора, если ни одна из сторон не потребовала его расторжения, условие о срочном характере трудового договора утрачивает силу и трудовой договор считается заключенным на неопределенный срок. На практике в различных образовательных организациях используется двухгодичный и трехгодичный срок трудового договора. В статье 59 ТК РФ приведен перечень ситуаций, при возникновении которых с работником может быть оформлен срочный трудовой договор. В частности, он может быть заключен: - на время исполнения обязанностей отсутствующего работника, за которым в соответствии с трудовым законодательством и иными нормативными правовыми актами, содержащими нормы трудового права, коллективным договором, соглашениями, локальными нормативными актами, трудовым договором сохраняется место работы; - на время выполнения временных (до двух месяцев) работ; - на время выполнения сезонных работ, когда в силу природных условий работа может производиться только в течение определенного периода (сезона); - при направлении на работу за границу; - при поступлении на работу в организации, созданные на заведомо определенный период или для выполнения заведомо определенной работы; - для выполнения работ, непосредственно связанных со стажировкой и с профессиональным обучением работника, и другие случаи. По соглашению сторон срочные трудовые договоры могут заключаться: - с поступающими на работу пенсионерами по возрасту, а также с лицами, которым по состоянию здоровья в соответствии с медицинским заключением, выданным в порядке, установленном федеральными законами и иными нормативными правовыми актами РФ, разрешена работа Т рудовой Кодекс Р оссийской Федерации от 30.12.2001 № 197-ФЗ (ред. от 20.01.2017) [Электронный ресурс]. Электрон. дан. Доступ из информ.-правовой системы «КонсультантПлюс» (версия 2017). 1 �Содержание исключительно временного характера; - с лицами, поступающими на работу в организации, расположенные в районах Крайнего Севера и приравненных к ним местностях, если это связано с переездом к месту работы; - с лицами, избранными по конкурсу на замещение соответствующей должности, проведенному в порядке, установленном трудовым законодательством и иными нормативными правовыми актами, содержащими нормы трудового права; - с руководителями, заместителями руководителей и главными бухгалтерами организаций, независимо от их организационно-правовых форм и форм собственности; - с лицами, обучающимися по очной форме обучения; - с лицами, поступающими на работу по совместительству, и в других случаях. Во всех указанных случаях регулирование особенностей содержания таких трудовых договоров регламентируется посредством подзаконных актов. Согласно ст. 67 ТК РФ трудовой договор заключается в двух экземплярах в письменной форме, каждый из которых подписывается сторонами. Один экземпляр трудового договора передается работнику, другой хранится у работодателя. Получение работником экземпляра трудового договора должно подтверждаться подписью работника на экземпляре, хранящемся у работодателя. Порядок заключения трудового договора с работником федерального бюджетного учреждения и его примерная форма, а также форма дополнительного соглашения к трудовому договору утверждены Приказом Минздравсоцразвития РФ № 424н. Трудовой договор, не оформленный в письменной форме, считается заключенным, если работник приступил к работе с ведома или по поручению работодателя или его представителя. В случае фактического допуска работника к работе работодатель обязан оформить с ним трудовой договор в письменной форме не позднее трех рабочих дней со дня фактического допущения работника к работе. Содержание трудового договора определяется статьей 57 ТК РФ. В законе «Об образовании в РФ» предусмотрено, что трудовые отношения работника и образовательного учреждения регулируются трудовым договором (контрактом), в свою очередь, условия последнего не должны противоречить Трудовому кодексу. Согласно ст. 57 ТК РФ трудовой договор (контракт) должен содержать такие обязательные сведения, как: - фамилия, имя, отчество работника и наименование работодателя (фамилия, имя, отчество работодателя – физического лица), заключивших трудовой договор; - сведения о документах, удостоверяющих личность работника и работодателя – физического лица; - идентификационный номер налогоплательщика (для работодателей, за исключением работодателей – физических лиц, не являющихся индивидуальными предпринимателями); - сведения о представителе работодателя, подписавшем трудовой договор, и основание, в силу которого он наделен соответствующими полномочиями; - место и дата заключения трудового договора. Трудовым кодексом также перечислены обязательные условия, которые нужно включить в трудовой договор. Например: - место работы (в случае необходимости – место работы с указанием обособленного структурного подразделения и его местонахождения); - трудовая функция (работа по должности в соответствии со штатным расписанием, профессия, специальность с указанием квалификации; конкретный вид поручаемой работнику работы); �Содержание - дата начала работы, а в случае, когда заключается срочный трудовой договор, – также срок его действия и обстоятельства (причины), послужившие основанием для заключения срочного трудового договора в соответствии с ТК РФ или иным федеральным законом; - условия оплаты труда (в том числе размер тарифной ставки или оклада (должностного оклада) работника, доплаты, надбавки и поощрительные выплаты); - режим рабочего времени и времени отдыха (если для данного работника он отличается от общих правил, действующих у данного работодателя) и другие. В трудовом договоре также могут предусматриваться дополнительные условия, не ухудшающие положение работника по сравнению с установленными трудовым законодательством и иными нормативными правовыми актами, содержащими нормы трудового права, коллективным договором, соглашениями, локальными нормативными актами, например об уточнении места работы (с указанием структурного подразделения и его местонахождения) и (или) о рабочем месте, об испытании, о неразглашении охраняемой законом тайны (государственной, служебной, коммерческой и иной) и другие1. По соглашению сторон в трудовой договор могут также включаться права и обязанности работника и работодателя, установленные трудовым законодательством и иными нормативными правовыми актами, содержащими нормы трудового права, локальными нормативными актами, а также права и обязанности работника и работодателя, вытекающие из условий коллективного договора, соглашений. В заключаемых с педагогическими работниками трудовых договорах следует предусмотреть некоторые особенности их труда. Например, в трудовом договоре следует указать учебную нагрузку педагогического работника, которая не должна превышать предела, установленного соответствующим типовым положением об образовательном учреждении. Продолжительность рабочей недели педагогического работника не может превышать 36 часов в неделю (ст. 333 ТК РФ). (Подробнее данные вопросы будут рассмотрены в главе второй настоящего учебного пособия.) Поэтому при установлении количества часов педагогической работы работодателю необходимо руководствоваться Приказ Минобразования РФ от 22 декабря 2014 № 1601 «О продолжительности рабочего времени (нормах часов педагогической работы за ставку заработной платы) педагогических работников и о порядке определения учебной нагрузки педагогических работников, оговариваемой в трудовом договоре»2 (приложение 2). Нормированию труда педагогических работников в настоящее время уделяется пристальное внимание законодателя. Особенности труда педагогических работников регулируются главой 52 Трудового кодекса РФ. Существуют особенности заключения трудового договора с научно-педагогическими работниками – они избираются по конкурсу. Новые положения утверждены Приказом Минобразования РФ от 4 декабря 2014 года № 1536 «Об утверждении положения о порядке замещения должностей научно-педагогических работников» (приложение 3). Т рудовой Кодекс Р оссийской Федерации от 30.12.2001 № 197-ФЗ (ред. от 20.01.2017) [Электронный ресурс]. Электрон. дан. Доступ из информ.-правовой системы «КонсультантПлюс» (версия 2017). 1 2 О продолжительности рабочего времени (нормах часов педагогической работы за ставку заработной платы) педагогических работников и о порядке определения учебной нагрузки педагогических работников, оговариваемой в трудовом договоре [Электронный ресурс]: Приказ Минобразования Р Ф от 22 декабря 2014 № 1601. Электрон. дан. Доступ из информ.-правовой системы «КонсультантПлюс» (версия 2017). �Содержание 1.3. Эффективный контракт Постановлением Правительства РФ от 15 апреля 2014 г. № 295 «Об утверждении государственной программы Российской Федерации ″Развитие образования на 2013–2020 годы″» обозначены проблемы перевода педагогических работников образовательных организаций на эффективные контракты. Эффективный контракт – это трудовой договор с работником, в котором конкретизированы его должностные обязанности, условия оплаты труда, показатели и критерии оценки эффективности деятельности для назначения стимулирующих выплат в зависимости от результатов труда и качества оказываемых государственных (муниципальных) услуг, а также меры социальной поддержки. В настоящее время в образовательных организациях проводится активная работа по введению эффективного контракта с педагогом. Введение эффективного контракта регламентируется: 1. Указом Президента РФ от 7 мая 2012 г. № 597 «О мероприятиях по реализации государственной социальной политики». 2. Государственной программой Российской Федерации «Развитие образования» на 2013–2020 годы, утвержденной распоряжением Правительства РФ от 15.05.2013 г. № 792-р. 3. Программой поэтапного совершенствования системы оплаты труда в государственных (муниципальных) учреждениях на 2012–2018 годы, утвержденной распоряжением Правительства РФ от 26.11. 2012 г. № 2190-р (далее – Программа). 4. Приказом Минтруда России №167н от 26 апреля 2013 г. «Об утверждении рекомендаций по оформлению трудовых отношений с работником государственного (муниципального) учреждения при введении эффективного контракта» (далее – Рекомендации). 5. Письмом Минобрнауки России от 12 сентября 2013 года № НТ-883/17 «О реализации части 11 статьи 108 Федерального закона от 29 декабря 2012 г. № 273-ФЗ ″Об образовании в Российской Федерации″» (далее – Письмо). 6. Показателями эффективности деятельности подведомственных государственных, муниципальных учреждений образования, утвержденными органами местного самоуправления. Цель введения эффективного контракта – это введение взаимоувязанной системы отраслевых показателей эффективности; установление соответствующих показателям эффективности стимулирующих выплат, критериев и условий их назначения с отражением в примерных положениях об оплате труда работников учреждений, коллективных договорах, трудовых договорах; отмена неэффективных стимулирующих выплат; использование при оценке достижения конкретных показателей качества и количества оказываемых государственных (муниципальных) услуг (выполнения работ) независимой системы оценки качества работы учреждений, включающей кроме критериев эффективности их работы и введение публичных рейтингов их деятельности. Переход на эффективный контракт с педагогами предопределен государственной программой РФ «Развитие образования» на 2013–2020 годы, утвержденной распоряжением Правительства РФ от 15.05.2013 г. № 792-р. Определение эффективного контракта дано в Программе поэтапного совершенствования системы оплаты труда в государственных (муниципальных) учреждениях на 2012– 2018 годы, утвержденной распоряжением Правительства РФ от 26.11. 2012 г. № 2190-р. Эффективный контракт в полной мере соответствует статье 57 Трудового кодекса РФ и не является новой правовой формой трудового договора. В эффективном контракте в отношении каждого работника должны быть уточнены и конкретизированы: трудовая функция; показатели и критерии оценки эффективности деятельности; размер и условия стимулирующих выплат, определенные с учетом рекомендуемых показателей. При этом условия получения вознаграждения должны быть понятны работодателю и �Содержание работнику. Непосредственно в тексте трудового договора должностные обязанности работника должны быть отражены с учетом действующих обязанностей, установленных должностной инструкцией. Эффективный контракт предполагает также установление норм труда. В практике работы образовательных организаций наиболее проблемным в системах оплаты труда работников является конкретизация выплат стимулирующего и компенсационного характера. Приказом Минтруда России №167н от 26 апреля 2013 г. в системах оплаты труда, трудовых договорах и дополнительных соглашениях к трудовым договорам с работниками учреждений рекомендуется использовать следующие выплаты стимулирующего и компенсационного характера: а) выплаты за интенсивность и высокие результаты работы: - надбавка за интенсивность труда; - премия за высокие результаты работы; - премия за выполнение особо важных и ответственных работ; б) выплаты за качество выполняемых работ: - надбавка за наличие квалификационной категории; - премия за образцовое выполнение государственного (муниципального) задания; в) выплаты за стаж непрерывной работы, выслугу лет: - надбавка за выслугу лет; - надбавка за стаж непрерывной работы; г) премиальные выплаты по итогам работы: - премия по итогам работы за месяц; - премия по итогам работы за квартал; - премия по итогам работы за год; д) выплаты работникам, занятым на тяжелых работах, работах с вредными и (или) опасными и иными особыми условиями труда; е) выплаты за работу в условиях, отклоняющихся от нормальных (при выполнении работ различной квалификации, совмещении профессий (должностей), расширении зон обслуживания, увеличении объема выполняемых работ, сверхурочной работе, работе в ночное время и при выполнении работ в других условиях, отклоняющихся от нормальных): - доплата за совмещение профессий (должностей); - доплата за расширение зон обслуживания; - доплата за увеличение объема работы; - доплата за исполнение обязанностей временно отсутствующего работника без освобождения от работы, определенной трудовым договором; - доплата за выполнение работ различной квалификации; - доплата за работу в ночное время; ж) надбавка за работу со сведениями, составляющими государственную тайну, их засекречиванием и рассекречиванием, а также за работу с шифрами. Могут быть предусмотрены другие выплаты компенсационного и стимулирующего характера в соответствии с трудовым законодательством, иными нормативными правовыми актами, содержащими нормы трудового права, а также коллективными договорами и соглашениями. В трудовом договоре или дополнительном соглашении к трудовому договору условия осуществления выплат рекомендуется �Содержание конкретизировать применительно к данному работнику образовательной организации. Введение эффективного контракта с педагогом в образовательной организации предполагает осуществление определенной организационной и административной работы руководства образовательной организации, к примеру: - Проведение разъяснительной работы в педколлективе по вопросам введения эффективного контракта педагога. - Создание в образовательной организации комиссии по проведению работы, связанной с введением эффективного контракта педагога. - Анализ действующих трудовых договоров работников на предмет их соответствия ст. 57 Трудового кодекса РФ и приказу Минтруда России от 24.04.2013 № 167н «Об утверждении рекомендаций по оформлению трудовых отношений с работником государственного (муниципального) учреждения при введении эффективного контракта». - Разработка показателей эффективности труда педработников. - Разработка и внесение изменений в такие локальные акты образовательной организации как коллективный договор, правила внутреннего трудового распорядка, положение об оплате труда, положение о выплатах стимулирующего характера с учетом разработанных показателей. - Принятие локальных нормативных актов, связанных с оплатой труда работника, с учетом мнения первичной профсоюзной организации. - Конкретизация трудовой функции и условий оплаты труда педработника. - Подготовка и внесение изменений в трудовые договоры работников. - Уведомление педагогических работников об изменении определенных условий трудового договора в письменной форме не менее чем за два месяца согласно ст. 74 Трудового кодекса РФ. Работа по введению эффективного контракта должна проводиться в обстановке гласности и обсуждения в трудовом коллективе. Оформление трудовых отношений при введении эффективного контракта осуществляется по общему правилу путем заключения дополнительного соглашения к трудовому договору в порядке, установленном ТК РФ. В процедуре требуется предупреждение работника об изменении условий трудового договора в письменном виде не менее чем за 2 месяца (статья 74 ТК РФ). В соответствии со статьей 72 Трудового кодекса Российской Федерации трудовой договор, соглашение об изменении определенных сторонами условий трудового договора заключаются в письменной форме в двух экземплярах, один из которых вручается работнику под роспись на экземпляре, хранящемся у работодателя. Дополнительное соглашение к трудовому договору рекомендуется заключать по мере разработки показателей и критериев оценки эффективности труда работников учреждения для определения размеров и условий осуществления стимулирующих выплат. В соответствии с Программой завершение работы по заключению трудовых договоров с работниками в связи с введением эффективного контракта предполагается на третьем этапе, охватывающем 2016– 2018 годы. Реализация Программы позволит: - повысить престижность и привлекательность профессий работников, участвующих в оказании государственных (муниципальных) услуг (выполнении работ); - внедрить в учреждениях системы оплаты труда работников, увязанные с качеством оказания государственных (муниципальных) услуг (выполнения работ); �Содержание - повысить уровень квалификации работников, участвующих в оказании государственных (муниципальных) услуг (выполнении работ); - повысить качество оказания государственных (муниципальных) услуг (выполнения работ) в социальной сфере; - создать прозрачный механизм оплаты труда руководителей учреждений. В применении к образовательному учреждению самое главное в введении эффективного контракта с педагогом – это обеспечение качественного образования. Одним из ключевых направлений государственной социальной политики является повышение заработной платы педагогических работников с учетом показателей эффективности и качества услуг. Целевые показатели заработных плат педагогических работников зафиксированы в отраслевых «дорожных картах» субъектов Российской Федерации и опираются на утвержденный Правительством Российской Федерации в соответствии с Указом Президента Российской Федерации от 7 мая 2012 г. № 597 «О мероприятиях по реализации государственной социальной политики» план мероприятий, в котором установлены целевые значения повышения оплаты труда по каждой категории педагогических работников (в соответствии с Программой поэтапного совершенствования системы оплаты труда в государственных (муниципальных) учреждениях на 2012–2018 годы, утвержденной распоряжением Правительства Российской Федерации от 26 ноября 2012 г. № 2190-р). Для повышения заработных плат педагогических работников необходима скоординированная работа всей системы образования, каждого уровня – от федерального уровня до уровня образовательной организации. Это связано с особенностями закрепления полномочий по организации и финансовому обеспечению различных уровней образования. Предлагаемые модели распределения стимулирующих выплат, согласно эффективному контракту вызывает множество критических замечаний. Повышение заработной платы педагогических работников должно сопровождаться повышением качества деятельности образовательных организаций. Одним из инструментов этого является эффективный контракт. Система оценки деятельности и оплаты труда педагогических работников должна выстраиваться на основе системного подхода к оцениванию результатов деятельности педагогов, их профессиональных компетенций. Эффективный контракт строится как на имеющемся опыте стимулирования педагогических работников по результатам работы, так и на стимулировании в зависимости от уровня квалификации. Эффективный контракт призван стать интегральной основой повышения качества подготовки выпускников и стимулировать повышение качества работы педагогических коллективов. В каждой образовательной организации формируется собственная программа развития и кадрового обновления. Одним из ключевых приоритетов Программы становится реализация комплексных мероприятий по обновлению педагогических кадров. На всех уровнях образовательных организаций необходимо учесть позиции профессионального, экспертного сообщества и потребителей образовательных услуг, это позволит решить ряд насущных проблем, которые имеются в системе подготовки и повышения квалификации педагогических кадров, в самой профессиональной деятельности педагогов для достижения высоких образовательных результатов обучающихся. На федеральном уровне будет обеспечиваться методическое сопровождение органов государственной власти субъектов Российской Федерации, которые осуществляют управление в сфере образования. В процессе апробации и внедрения находятся профессиональные стандарты педагога в рамках федеральных, региональных и муниципальных пилотных проектов. На сегодняшний день актуальным в системе образования Российской Федерации становится построение общероссийской системы оценки качества образования, которая включает: - процедуры государственной регламентации образовательной деятельности; �Содержание - процедуры независимой оценки качества образования, профессионально-общественной аккредитации образовательных программ; - участие Российской Федерации в международных сопоставительных исследованиях качества результатов образования. Потребители образовательных услуг заинтересованы в улучшении информированности о качестве работы образовательных организаций в Российской Федерации. Для достижения данных целей происходит: - привлечение к оценке качества образования общественных и общественно-профессиональных организаций, негосударственных, автономных некоммерческих организаций, отдельных физических лиц в качестве экспертов, специализирующихся на вопросах оценки качества образования; - осуществление координации действий федеральных органов исполнительной власти и органов исполнительной власти субъектов Российской Федерации, негосударственных структур, общественных, общественно-профессиональных организаций по повышению качества условий осуществления образовательного процесса, реализуемых образовательными организациями образовательных программ, результатов освоения образовательных программ, определяемых федеральными государственными образовательными стандартами и соответствующих интересам потребителей образовательных услуг; - совершенствование содержания и способов организации образовательного процесса в образовательных организациях для достижения соответствия результатов освоения образовательных программ современным требованиям в соответствии с федеральными государственными образовательными стандартами; - осуществление мероприятий по повышению эффективности, качества и доступности образовательных услуг; - мониторинг системы образования и обеспечение открытости информации о деятельности образовательных организаций. В результате реализации вышеобозначенной Программы ожидается внедрение целостной и сбалансированной системы процедур и механизмов оценки качества образования, реализуемых на федеральном и региональном уровнях. В рамках реализации Программы будет обеспечен доступ в Интернет к открытым данным, содержащимся в информационных системах органов государственной власти Российской Федерации, органов исполнительной власти субъектов Российской Федерации, осуществляющих управление в сфере образования. За счет перевода услуги по приему заявлений, постановке на учет и зачислению детей в образовательные организации, реализующие основную образовательную программу дошкольного образования (детские сады), в электронный вид (электронная очередь) к 2018 году повысится доля граждан, использующих механизм получения государственных и муниципальных услуг в электронной форме. В рамках реализации Программы планируется создание условий для успешной социализации и эффективной самореализации молодежи, развития потенциала молодежи и его использования в интересах инновационного развития страны. �Содержание 1.4. Отстранение работника от работы В Трудовом кодексе РФ установлены основания для отстранения работника от работы, работодатель обязан не допускать работников к выполнению трудовой функции, предусмотренной трудовым договором. От соблюдения этих требований в образовательных организациях во многом зависит безопасность и здоровье учащихся. Согласно статье 76 Трудового кодекса РФ работодатель обязан отстранить (не допускать к работе) работника: 1) появившегося на работе в состоянии алкогольного, наркотического или токсического опьянения; 2) не прошедшего в установленном порядке обучение и проверку знаний и навыков в области охраны труда; 3) не прошедшего в установленном порядке обязательный предварительный или периодический медицинский осмотр; 4) при выявлении в соответствии с медицинским заключением противопоказаний для выполнения работником работы, обусловленной трудовым договором; 5) по требованиям органов и должностных лиц, уполномоченных федеральными законами и иными нормативными правовыми актами; 6) в других случаях, предусмотренных федеральными законами и иными нормативными правовыми актами1. Отстранение от работы означает, что работник приступил к выполнению трудовой функции и об обстоятельствах, перечисленных в пунктах 1–6, работодателю стало известно в течение рабочего дня. В свою очередь недопущение к работе означает, что указанные обстоятельства выявлены до начала выполнения трудовой функции (до начала рабочего дня). Работодатель отстраняет (не допускает к работе) работника на весь период времени до устранения обстоятельств, явившихся основанием для принятия подобной меры. В этот период заработная плата работнику не начисляется, за исключением случаев, предусмотренных федеральными законами. Если от работы отстраняется работник, который не прошел обучение и проверку знаний и навыков в области охраны труда либо медицинский осмотр не по своей вине, то ему производится оплата за все время отстранения как за простой. Решение работодателя об отстранении работника обязательно оформляется приказом (распоряжением). Выявление в соответствии с медицинским заключением противопоказаний для выполнения работником образовательной организации работы, обусловленной трудовым договором, является основанием для его отстранения. В соответствии с частью 2 статьи 212 Трудового кодекса РФ работодатель обязан обеспечить недопущение работников к исполнению ими трудовых обязанностей в случае медицинских противопоказаний. Такие противопоказания могут быть выявлены в ходе медицинских осмотров, проводимых как по инициативе работодателя (в силу требований законодательства), так и по инициативе работников. Т рудовой Кодекс Р оссийской Федерации от 30.12.2001 № 197-ФЗ (ред. от 20.01.2017) [Электронный ресурс]. Электрон. дан. Доступ из информ.-правовой системы «КонсультантПлюс» (версия 2017). 1 �Содержание В статье 46 закона «Об образовании в РФ» устанавливается, что к педагогической деятельности в образовательных учреждениях не допускаются лица, которым она запрещена приговором суда или по медицинским показаниям, а также лица, имеющие неснятую или непогашенную судимость за умышленные тяжкие и особо тяжкие преступления, предусмотренные Уголовным кодексом Российской Федерации. Аналогичные нормы содержатся в статье 331 Трудового кодекса РФ. Постановлением Правительства РФ от 26 апреля 1993 года № 377 утвержден перечень медицинских психиатрических противопоказаний для осуществления отдельных видов профессиональной деятельности, в котором указаны работники учебно-воспитательных учреждений. Согласно п. 2 статьи 33 Федерального закона от 30.09.1999 № 52-ФЗ «О санитарноэпидемиологическом благополучии населения» лица, являющиеся носителями возбудителей инфекционных заболеваний, если они могут стать источниками распространения инфекционных заболеваний в связи с особенностями производства, в котором они заняты, или выполняемой ими работой, при их согласии временно переводятся на другую работу, не связанную с риском распространения инфекционных заболеваний. При невозможности перевода на основании постановлений главных государственных санитарных врачей и их заместителей они временно отстраняются от работы с выплатой пособий по социальному страхованию. В данном случае не работодатель принимает решение об отстранении работника, а уполномоченное должностное лицо органа государственной власти, что позволяет относить данное основание отстранения к обстоятельствам, указанным в абзаце 6 статьи 76 Трудового кодекса РФ. Сотрудники столовых и буфетов в общеобразовательных организациях, у которых в результате осмотра перед началом смены выявлены гнойничковые заболевания кожи, нагноившиеся порезы, ожоги, ссадины, а также катары верхних дыхательных путей, к работе не допускаются, а переводятся на другую работу, не связанную с риском распространения инфекционных заболеваний (Санитарноэпидемиологические правила и нормативы «Гигиенические требования к условиям обучения в общеобразовательных учреждениях. СанПиН 2.4.2.1178-02», утвержденные постановлением Главного государственного санитарного врача РФ от 28.11.2002 № 44). Решение об отстранении (о недопущении к работе) работодатель должен принять на основании заключения медработника о неудовлетворительном состоянии здоровья работника, не позволяющем надлежащим образом выполнить трудовую функцию. Согласно нормам Трудового кодекса РФ работодатель также обязан отстранить (не допускать к работе) работника, появившегося в состоянии алкогольного, наркотического или токсического опьянения. Нетрезвое состояние работника может быть подтверждено медицинским заключением, свидетельскими показаниями и другими доказательствами. Для этого работодателю необходимо составить акт, подписанный несколькими работниками, в котором описать признаки, позволяющие сделать вывод о нахождении работника в состоянии опьянения (нарушение координации движений, запах алкоголя, шатающаяся походка и др.). В соответствии со статьей 76 Трудового кодекса РФ работодатель обязан отстранить работника от работы по требованию органов и должностных лиц, уполномоченных федеральными законами. Органы и должностные лица, о которых идет речь в указанной статье, это, например, органы предварительного расследования (ст. 114 Уголовного процессуального кодекса РФ); органы санитарноэпидемиологического надзора, органы пожарной охраны; органы ГИБДД;органы контроля за техническим состоянием оборудования, за техническим руководством проводимых работ;органы, контролирующие охрану труда и состояние техники безопасности;государственные инспекторы труда – при нарушении законодательства об охране труда (ст. 357 Трудового кодекса РФ). �Содержание Главные государственные санитарные врачи и их заместители вправе выносить постановления об отстранении от работы лиц, являющихся носителями возбудителей инфекционных заболеваний в связи с особенностями производства, в котором они заняты, или выполняемой ими работы. При невозможности перевода таких лиц на другую работу им выплачивается пособие по социальному страхованию (ст. 31 Федерального закона от 12 марта 1999 года № 52-ФЗ «О санитарноэпидемиологическом благополучии населения»). Обеспечение охраны труда возложено на работодателя (ст. 212 Трудового кодекса РФ). Непосредственно работодатель должен обеспечить обязательное обучение работников безопасным методам и приемам выполнения работ и оказания первой помощи при несчастных случаях на производстве, инструктаж по охране труда, проверку знаний требований охраны труда. Согласно ст. 225 Трудового кодекса РФ все работники организации, в том числе руководители, обязаны проходить обучение по охране труда и проверку знаний требований охраны труда. Работодатели должны быть непосредственно заинтересованы в обеспечении мероприятий по обучению работников правилам и требованиям охраны труда, поскольку, если работник, не прошедший обучение и проверку знаний не по своей вине, будет отстранен от работы, работодатель обязан произвести оплату за все время отстранения как за простой. Согласно ст. 225 Трудового кодекса РФ обучение работников осуществляется в порядке, определенном Правительством РФ. Порядок обучения и проверки знаний требований охраны труда работников организаций утвержден совместным Постановлением Министерства труда и социального развития РФ и Министерства образования РФ от 13 января 2003 года № 1/29. Работодатели должны знать, что невыполнение обязанностей по организации обучения и проверке знаний может повлечь применение к ним мер административной ответственности. Так, за невыполнение предусмотренной Трудовым кодексом РФ обязанности по проведению обучения работников и проверке знаний по охране труда должностные лица организаций-работодателей могут быть привлечены к ответственности по ст. 5.27 Кодекса РФ об административных правонарушениях от 30.12.2001 № 195-ФЗ. Обращаем также внимание на норму статьи 121 Трудового кодекса РФ, в соответствии с которой в стаж работы, дающий право на ежегодный основной оплачиваемый отпуск, не включается время отсутствия работника на работе без уважительных причин, в том числе вследствие его отстранения от работы в случаях, предусмотренных статьей 76 Трудового кодекса РФ. В заключение необходимо напомнить, что работодатель также несет юридическую ответственность за последствия, которые возникли в связи с допуском педагогического работника к работе в случаях, предусмотренных в статье 76 Трудового кодекса РФ. �Содержание 1.5. Основания прекращения трудового договора с педагогическим работником Основания прекращения трудового договора, указанные, в частности, в ст. 77, 81, 83 ТК РФ, при наличии соответствующих обстоятельств могут являться и основаниями для прекращения трудовых договоров с педагогическими работниками. Например, трудовой договор с педагогическим работником, признанным не соответствующим занимаемой должности (выполняемой работе) по результатам аттестации, которая проведена в соответствии с трудовым законодательством и другими нормативными правовыми актами, содержащими нормы трудового права, локальными нормативными актами работодателя, может быть расторгнут по п. 3 ч. 1 ст. 81 ТК РФ, если работника невозможно перевести на другую работу в соответствии с требованиями ч. 3 ст. 81 ТК РФ (п. 31 Постановления Пленума Верховного Суда РФ от 17.03.2004 № 2, письмо Роструда от 30.04.2008 № 1028-с). Под другой работой понимается как вакантная должность или работа, соответствующая квалификации работника, так и вакантная нижестоящая должность или нижеоплачиваемая работа, которую педагогический работник может выполнять с учетом его состояния здоровья. Работодатель обязан предлагать работнику все отвечающие указанным требованиям вакансии, которые имеются у него в данной местности, а также в других местностях, если это предусмотрено коллективным договором, соглашениями, трудовым договором (ч. 3 ст. 81 ТК РФ). Трудовой договор с педагогическими рaботниками, в чьи трудовые (должностные) обязанности непосредственно входят воспитательные функции, может быть расторгнут по основанию, предусмотренному п. 8 ч. 1 ст. 81 ТК РФ, — совершение работником, выполняющим воспитательные функции, аморального поступка, несовместимого с продолжением данной работы. Трудовой кодекс Российской Федерации не дает определения aморального проступка и не устанавливает критериев, на основании которых проступок лица, выполняющего воспитательные функции, может быть признан аморальным. Таким образом, работодателю предоставлена возможность самостоятельно решить данный вопрос в зависимости от конкретных обстоятельств дела. Аморальным проступком может считаться любое нарушение моральных устоев и общепринятых в обществе норм поведения. К числу укaзанных проступков, несовместимых с продолжением воспитательной работы, могут относиться скандалы, драки, появление на работе или в общественных местах в состоянии алкогольного, наркотического или иного токсического опьянения, оскорбляющем человеческое достоинство, недостойное поведение в быту, вовлечение несовершеннолетних в пьянство, жестокое обращение с животными и другие неблaговидные действия. За совершение аморального проступка могут быть уволены только те работники, для которых воспитательные функции составляют основное содержание выполняемой работы. Таким образом, трудовые договоры с иными работниками образовательных учреждений, выполняющими технические обязанности (например, с уборщицами, лаборантами, медицинским персоналом, гардеробщицами, рaботниками пищеблоков детских учреждений и различных учебных заведений), не могут быть расторгнуты по указанному основанию. Верховный Суд РФ указывает на то, что аморальным считается проступок, противоречащий общепринятым нормам морали, причем не имеет значения, связан он с выполняемой работой или нет, совершен он по месту работы или в быту (п. 46 Постановления Пленума Верховного Суда РФ от 17 марта 2004 г. № 2). Вместе с тем следует иметь в виду, что от места совершения аморального проступка зависит порядок увольнения по рассматриваемому основанию. Так в п. 47 названного Постановления отмечается, что если аморальный проступок совершен работником по месту работы и в связи с исполнением им трудовых обязанностей, то такой работник �Содержание может быть уволен с рaботы (по п. 8 ст. 81 ТК РФ) при условии соблюдения порядка применения дисциплинарных взысканий, установленного ст. 193 ТК РФ. Если аморальный проступок был совершен не по месту работы и не в связи с исполнением трудовых обязанностей, то увольнение в указанном случае не является мерой дисциплинарного взыскaния применение которой обусловлено сроками, установленными Кодексом так как в силу ч. 1 ст. 192 ТК РФ дисциплинарные взыскания применяются только за неисполнение или ненадлежащее исполнение работником по его вине возложенных на него трудовых обязанностей. Фaкт совершения аморального проступка должен быть доказан. В качестве доказательств могут быть использованы показания свидетелей, надлежащим образом оформленные акты и т.п. Недопустимо увольнение за совершение подобного проступкa на основании общей оценки поведения лицa, осуществляющего воспитaтельные функции, а также на основании неконкретных или недостаточно проверенных фактов, слухов и т. д. При возникновении установленных Трудовым кодексом РФ и иными федеральными законами ограничений, которые исключают возможность исполнения педагогическим работником своих обязанностей, трудовой договор подлежит прекращению по п. 13 ч. 1 ст. 83 ТК РФ. Например, к числу таких ограничений относится осуждение работника согласно вступившему в законную силу обвинительному приговору суда за совершение преступлений, перечисленных в абз. 3 ч. 2 ст. 331 ТК РФ. До 1 января 2015 г. рaботодатель обязан был уволить педагогического работника, если в процессе осуществления трудовой деятельности становилось известным, что такой работник подвергается уголовному преследованию за совершение преступлений, например, против половой неприкосновенности и половой свободы личности, против семьи и несовершеннолетних, здоровья населения и общественной нравственности. В настоящее время педагогического работника, который подвергaется уголовному преследованию, уволить нельзя. При получении сведений от правоохранительных органов о том, что работник подвергается уголовному преследованию за совершение преступлений, перечисленных в абз. 3, 4 ч. 2 ст. 331 ТК РФ, работодатель обязан отстранить от работы (не допускать к работе) педагогического работника при получении от правоохранительных органов сведений о том, что данный работник подвергается уголовному преследованию за преступления, указанные в абзацах третьем и четвертом части второй статьи 331 ТК РФ. Работодатель отстраняет от работы (не допускает к работе) педагогического работника на весь период производства по уголовному делу до его прекращения либо до вступления в силу приговора суда. Если педагогический работник скрыл, например, наличие приговора суда о лишении его права занимать педагогическую должность (заниматься педагогической деятельностью), то трудовой договор должен быть прекращен (п. 11 ч. 1 ст. 77, абз. 2 ч. 1 ст. 84 ТК РФ). При этом работодатель не обязан предлагать работнику другую работу и выплачивать выходное пособие, что следует из ч. 3 ст. 84 ТК РФ. Рассмотрим дополнительные основания прекращения трудового договора с педагогическими работниками. Особенностью расторжения трудового договора с педагогическими работниками является также наличие в Трудовом Кодексе РФ дополнительных оснований прекращения трудового договора с указанной категорией работников, предусмотренных статьей 336 ТК РФ (ред. 20.01.2017), таких как: 1) повторное в течение одного года грубое нарушение устава организации, осуществляющей образовательную деятельность; 2) применение, в том числе однократное, методов воспитания, связанных с физическим и (или) психическим насилием над личностью обучающегося, воспитанника; �Содержание 3) достижение предельного возраста для замещения соответствующей должности в соответствии со статьей 332 Трудового Кодекса1. Повторное в течение одного года грубое нарушение педагогическим работником устава образовательной организации Увольнение по п. 1 ст. 336 ТК РФ возможно, прежде всего, в случае совершения педагогическим работником действий, указанных в уставе образовательной организации, осуществляющей образовательную деятельность, в качестве его грубых нарушений,но если в уставе нет соответствующего перечня, это не означает, что уволить по данному основанию нельзя. Устав образовательной организации обычно предусматривает обязанности работника по соблюдению локальных нормативных актов, добросовестному исполнению должностных обязанностей, обязательность корректного поведения по отношению к учащимся и коллегам и т.д. Несоблюдение этих требований также может быть признано нарушениями устава. Поскольку законодательство прямо не определяет, что относится к числу грубых нарушений устава, вопросы о признании конкретных нарушений грубыми решает руководитель образовательной организации. В случае спора о законности увольнения суд оценивает такое решение по правилам ч. 5 ст. 192 ТК РФ. Если суд сочтет, что взыскание не соответствует тяжести проступка, работник может быть восстановлен на работе. Возможность увольнения по п. 1 ст. 336 ТК РФ не зависит от однотипности совершенных ранее работником нарушений устава и применения к работнику дисциплинарных взысканий за прежние нарушения. Повторность нарушения означает только то, что с момента предшествующего нарушения устава прошло менее одного календарного года. Поскольку увольнение по п. 1 ст. 336, ч. 2 ст. 192 ТК РФ отнесено к дисциплинарным взысканиям, оно требует соблюдения правил привлечения работников к дисциплинарной ответственности (ст. 193 ТК РФ). В приказе (распоряжении) о прекращении трудового договора, трудовой книжке и личной карточке в качестве основания прекращения трудового договора указывается повторное в течение года нарушение устава организации, осуществляющей образовательную деятельность и дается ссылка на п. 1 ст. 336 ТК РФ. Прекращение трудового договора производится в порядке, установленном ст. 84.1 ТК РФ. В последний рабочий день нужно: - Выдать работнику трудовую книжку. При получении работник должен расписаться в Книге учета движения трудовых книжек и вкладышей к ним, а также в личной карточке. В случае отсутствия работника или его отказа от получения трудовой книжки работодатель должен направить ему уведомление о том, что он должен явиться за трудовой книжкой или дать согласие на отправление ее по почте. - Выплатить работнику заработную плату за отработанный период и иные причитающиеся ему суммы, в том числе компенсацию за неиспользованный отпуск (при его наличии) 2. Применение педагогическим работником, в том числе однократное, методов воспитания, связанных с физическим и (или) психическим насилием над личностью обучающегося, воспитанника Увольнение по п. 2 ст. 336 ТК РФ возможно в случае применения (в том числе однократного) педагогическим работником к обучающимся или воспитанникам следующих методов: Т рудовой Кодекс Р оссийской Федерации от 30.12.2001 № 197-ФЗ (ред. от 20.01.2017) [Электронный ресурс]. Электрон. дан. Доступ из информ.-правовой системы «КонсультантПлюс» (версия 2017). 1 Т рудовой Кодекс Р оссийской Федерации от 30.12.2001 № 197-ФЗ (ред. от 20.01.2017) [Электронный ресурс]. Электрон. дан. Доступ из информ.-правовой системы «КонсультантПлюс» (версия 2017). 2 �Содержание - физического насилия, физической силы, принудительного физического воздействия; проявлением физического насилия могут быть побои и любые другие действия, причиняющие боль, принудительное лишение свободы, пищи, питья и т. д.; - психического насилия; проявлением психического насилия являются угрозы, преднамеренная изоляция, оскорбления и унижение достоинства, предъявление чрезмерных требований, систематическая необоснованная критика и т. п. В процессе дисциплинарного расследования работодатель устанавливает факт применения насилия, его цель, время, место, наличие или отсутствие умысла. Сделать это можно на основании свидетельских показаний, осмотра пострадавшего, медицинских документов. При этом наказуемым является физическое или психическое насилие, не совершенное случайно или по неосторожности. Причиной увольнения за применение насильственных методов воспитания может стать и соответствующее судебное решение. В приказе (распоряжении) о прекращении трудового договора, в трудовой книжке и личной карточке в качестве основания прекращения трудового договора указывается применение, в том числе однократное, методов воспитания, связанных с физическим и (или) психическим насилием над личностью обучающегося, воспитанника, и дается ссылка на п. 2 ст. 336 ТК РФ. Дополнительные основания прекращения трудового договора с педагогическим работником содержатся в главе 52 ТК РФ (ст. 332, 336). �Содержание Вопросы к главе 1 1. В каких нормативно-правовых актах определены правила допуска к педагогической деятельности? 2. Обязательным ли условием для лица, поступающего на работу в образовательную организацию является предоставление справки о наличии (отсутствии) судимости? 3. С какого момента трудовой договор считается заключенным? 4. Что означает «эффективный контракт»? 5. Каковы основные направления развития образования согласно Государственной программе РФ? 6. Назовите основания для отстранения от работы педагогического работника. 7. Укажите специфические основания для увольнения педагогического работника. �Содержание Глава 2. Рабочее время и время отдыха педагогических работников 2.1. Нормативное регулирование рабочего времени педагогических работников 2.2. Особенности отпуска для педагогических работников Вопросы к главе 2 �Содержание 2.1. Нормативное регулирование рабочего времени педагогических работников В рамках реализации Программы, утвержденной Постановлением Правительства РФ от 15 апреля 2014 года № 295 «Об утверждении государственной программы Российской Федерации ″Развитие образования на 2013–2020 годы″» запланировано содействие субъектам Российской Федерации в создании новых мест в общеобразовательных организациях в соответствии с прогнозируемой потребностью и современными требованиями к условиям обучения, обеспечивающих односменный режим обучения в 1–11 (12) классах в общеобразовательных организациях субъектов Российской Федерации, а также перевод обучающихся из зданий школ с износом 50 процентов и выше в новые здания. Продолжительность рабочего времени (норма часов педагогической работы за ставку заработной платы) педагогических работников образовательных учреждений регулируется статьями 92 и 333 Трудового кодекса РФ (далее – ТК РФ). Согласно статье 47 ФЗ-№ 273 в рабочее время педагогических работников в зависимости от занимаемой должности включается учебная (преподавательская) и воспитательная работа, в том числе практическая подготовка обучающихся, индивидуальная работа с обучающимися, научная, творческая и исследовательская работа, а также другая педагогическая работа, предусмотренная трудовыми (должностными) обязанностями и (или) индивидуальным планом, – методическая, подготовительная, организационная, диагностическая, работа по ведению мониторинга, работа, предусмотренная планами воспитательных, физкультурно-оздоровительных, спортивных, творческих и иных мероприятий, проводимых с обучающимися. Конкретные трудовые (должностные) обязанности педагогических работников определяются трудовыми договорами (служебными контрактами) и должностными инструкциями. Соотношение учебной (преподавательской) и другой педагогической работы в пределах рабочей недели или учебного года определяется соответствующим локальным нормативным актом организации, осуществляющей образовательную деятельность, с учетом количества часов по учебному плану, специальности и квалификации работника. Режим рабочего времени и времени отдыха педагогических работников организаций, осуществляющих образовательную деятельность, определяется коллективным договором, правилами внутреннего трудового распорядка, иными локальными нормативными актами организации, осуществляющей образовательную деятельность, трудовым договором, графиками работы и расписанием занятий в соответствии с требованиями трудового законодательства и с учетом особенностей, установленных федеральным органом исполнительной власти, осуществляющим функции по выработке государственной политики и нормативно-правовому регулированию в сфере образования. Педагогические работники, проживающие и работающие в сельских населенных пунктах, рабочих поселках (поселках городского типа), имеют право на предоставление компенсации расходов на оплату жилых помещений, отопления и освещения. Размер, условия и порядок возмещения расходов, связанных с предоставлением указанных мер социальной поддержки педагогическим работникам федеральных государственных образовательных организаций, устанавливаются Правительством Российской Федерации и обеспечиваются за счет бюджетных ассигнований федерального бюджета, а педагогическим работникам образовательных организаций субъектов Российской Федерации, муниципальных образовательных организаций устанавливаются законодательством субъектов Российской Федерации и обеспечиваются за счет бюджетных ассигнований бюджетов субъектов Российской Федерации. Педагогическим работникам образовательных организаций, участвующим по решению уполномоченных органов исполнительной власти в проведении единого государственного экзамена в �Содержание рабочее время и освобожденным от основной работы на период проведения единого государственного экзамена, предоставляются гарантии и компенсации, установленные трудовым законодательством и иными актами, содержащими нормы трудового права. Педагогическим работникам, участвующим в проведении единого государственного экзамена, выплачивается компенсация за работу по подготовке и проведению единого государственного экзамена. Размер и порядок выплаты указанной компенсации устанавливаются субъектом Российской Федерации за счет бюджетных ассигнований бюджета субъекта Российской Федерации, выделяемых на проведение единого государственного экзамена. Особенности режима рабочего времени педагогических работников регулируются приказом Министерства образованияи науки Российской Федерации от 22 декабря 2014 г. № 1601. Продолжительность рабочего времени (нормы часов педагогической работы за ставку заработной платы) для педагогических работников устанавливается исходя из сокращенной продолжительности. В зависимости от должности и (или) специальности педагогическим работникам устанавливается следующая продолжительность рабочего времени или нормы часов педагогической работы за ставку заработной платы. Продолжительность рабочего времени 36 часов в неделю устанавливается: педагогическим работникам, отнесенным к профессорско-преподавательскому составу; старшим воспитателям организаций, осуществляющих образовательную деятельность по образовательным программам дошкольного образования и дополнительным общеобразовательным программам, и домов ребенка, осуществляющих образовательную деятельность в качестве дополнительного вида деятельности; педагогам-психологам; социальным педагогам; педагогам-организаторам; мастерам производственного обучения; старшим вожатым; инструкторам по труду; педагогам-библиотекарям; методистам и старшим методистам организаций, осуществляющих образовательную деятельность; тьюторам организаций, осуществляющих образовательную деятельность, за исключением организаций, осуществляющих образовательную деятельность по образовательным программам высшего образования; руководителям физического воспитания организаций, осуществляющих образовательную деятельность по образовательным программам среднего профессионального образования; преподавателяморганизаторам основ безопасности жизнедеятельности; инструкторам-методистам, старшим инструкторам-методистам организаций, осуществляющих образовательную деятельность. Продолжительность рабочего времени 30 часов в неделю устанавливается старшим воспитателям. Норма часов педагогической работы 20 часов в неделю за ставку заработной платы устанавливается: учителям-дефектологам; учителям-логопедам. Норма часов педагогической работы 24 часа в неделю за ставку заработной платы устанавливается: музыкальным руководителям; концертмейстерам. Норма часов педагогической работы 25 часов в неделю за ставку заработной платы устанавливается воспитателям, непосредственно осуществляющим обучение, воспитание, присмотр и уход за обучающимися (воспитанниками) с ограниченными возможностями здоровья. Норма часов педагогической работы 30 часов в неделю за ставку заработной платы устанавливается: инструкторам по физической культуре; воспитателям организаций, осуществляющих образовательную деятельность по основным общеобразовательным программам, в которых созданы условия для проживания воспитанников в интернате, а также для осуществления присмотра и ухода за детьми в группах продленного дня, организаций для детей-сирот и детей, оставшихся без попечения родителей, организаций (групп), в том числе санаторных, для обучающихся (воспитанников) с туберкулезной интоксикацией, медицинских организаций, организаций социального обслуживания, осуществляющих образовательную деятельность в качестве дополнительного вида деятельности (далее – медицинские �Содержание организации и организации социального обслуживания) Норма часов педагогической работы 36 часов в неделю за ставку заработной платы устанавливается воспитателям организаций, осуществляющих образовательную деятельность по дополнительным общеобразовательным программам, образовательным программам дошкольного образования, образовательным программам среднего профессионального образования, а также осуществляющих присмотр и уход за детьми. Норма часов учебной (преподавательской) работы 18 часов в неделю за ставку заработной платы устанавливается: - учителям организаций, осуществляющих образовательную деятельность общеобразовательным программам (в том числе адаптированным); по основным - преподавателям организаций, осуществляющих образовательную деятельность по дополнительным общеобразовательным программам в области искусств, физической культуры и спорта; - педагогам дополнительного образования и старшим педагогам дополнительного образования; - тренерам-преподавателям и старшим тренерам-преподавателям организаций, осуществляющих образовательную деятельность по образовательным программам в области физической культуры и спорта; - логопедам медицинских организаций и организаций социального обслуживания; - учителям иностранного языка дошкольных образовательных организаций; - преподавателям организаций, осуществляющих образовательную деятельность по образовательным программам среднего профессионального образования педагогической направленности (за исключением преподавателей указанных организаций, применяющих норму часов учебной (преподавательской) работы 720 часов в год за ставку заработной платы). Норма часов учебной (преподавательской) работы 720 часов в год за ставку заработной платы устанавливается преподавателям организаций, осуществляющих образовательную деятельность по образовательным программам среднего профессионального образования, в том числе интегрированным образовательным программам в области искусств и по основным программам профессионального обучения. В зависимости от занимаемой должности в рабочее время педагогических работников включается учебная (преподавательская) и воспитательная работа, в том числе практическая подготовка обучающихся, индивидуальная работа с обучающимися, научная, творческая и исследовательская работа, а также другая педагогическая работа, предусмотренная трудовыми (должностными) обязанностями и (или) индивидуальным планом, методическая, подготовительная, организационная, диагностическая, работа по ведению мониторинга, работа, предусмотренная планами воспитательных, физкультурно-оздоровительных, спортивных, творческих и иных мероприятий, проводимых с обучающимися. Данные положения были введены на основании Приказа Минобрнауки России от 29.06.2016 № 755. За педагогическую работу или учебную (преподавательскую) работу, выполняемую педагогическим работником с его письменного согласия сверх установленной нормы часов за ставку заработной платы либо ниже установленной нормы часов за ставку заработной платы, оплата производится из установленного размера ставки заработной платы пропорционально фактически определенному объему педагогической работы или учебной (преподавательской) работы. �Содержание С учетом всех этих условий,был издан Приказ Минобразования РФ от 22 декабря 2014 № 1601 «О продолжительности рабочего времени (нормах часов педагогической работы за ставку заработной платы) педагогических работников и о порядке определения учебной нагрузки педагогических работников, оговариваемой в трудовом договоре». Определение учебной нагрузки педагогических работников, отнесенных к профессорско-преподавательскому составу, и основания ее изменения также регламентируется данным приказом. Для определения учебной нагрузки педагогических работников, замещающих должности профессорскопреподавательского состава (далее – педагогические работники), ежегодно на начало учебного года по структурным подразделениям организации, осуществляющей образовательную деятельность по образовательным программам высшего образования, дополнительным профессиональным программам (далее в данной главе – организация), с учетом обеспечиваемых ими направлений подготовки локальным нормативным актом организации устанавливается средний объем учебной нагрузки, а также ее верхние пределы дифференцированно по должностям профессорско-преподавательского состава. Учебная нагрузка каждого педагогического работника определяется в зависимости от занимаемой им должности, уровня квалификации и не может превышать верхних пределов, устанавливаемых по должностям профессорско-преподавательского состава. Учебная нагрузка педагогических работников включает в себя контактную работу обучающихся с преподавателем в видах учебной деятельности, установленных пунктом 54 Порядка организации и осуществления образовательной деятельности по образовательным программам высшего образования – программам бакалавриата, программам специалитета, программам магистратуры, утвержденного приказом Министерства образования и науки Российской Федерации от 19 декабря 2013 г. № 1367 (зарегистрирован Министерством юстиции Российской Федерации 24 февраля 2014 г., регистрационный № 31402) пунктом 7 Порядка организации и осуществления образовательной деятельности по образовательным программам высшего образования – программам ординатуры, утвержденного приказом Министерства образования и науки Российской Федерации от 19 ноября 2013 г. № 1258 (зарегистрирован Министерством юстиции Российской Федерации 28 января 2014 г., регистрационный № 31136) (далее – Порядок, утвержденный приказом № 1258), пункта 9 Порядка организации и осуществления образовательной деятельности по образовательным программам высшего образования – программам подготовки научно-педагогических кадров в аспирантуре (адъюнктуре), утвержденного приказом Министерства образования и науки Российской Федерации от 19 ноября 2013 г. № 1259 (зарегистрирован Министерством юстиции Российской Федерации 28 января 2014 г., регистрационный № 31137) (далее – Порядок, утвержденный приказом № 1259), пунктом 17 Порядка организации и осуществления образовательной деятельности по дополнительным профессиональным программам, утвержденного приказом Министерства образования и науки Российской Федерации от 1 июля 2013 г. № 499 (зарегистрирован Министерством юстиции Российской Федерации 20 августа 2013 г., регистрационный № 29444), с изменениями, внесенными приказом Министерства образования и науки Российской Федерации от 15 ноября 2013 г. № 1244 (зарегистрирован Министерством юстиции Российской Федерации 14 января 2014 г., регистрационный № 31014). Нормы времени по видам учебной деятельности, предусмотренным пунктом 6.3 Порядка, включаемых в учебную нагрузку педагогических работников, самостоятельно определяются организацией и утверждаются ее локальным нормативным актом. За единицу времени принимается академический или астрономический час согласно установленной величине зачетной единицы, используемой при реализации образовательных программ. �Содержание Соотношение учебной нагрузки педагогических работников, установленной на учебный год, и другой деятельности, предусмотренной должностными обязанностями и (или) индивидуальным планом (научной, творческой, исследовательской, методической, подготовительной, организационной, диагностической, лечебной, экспертной, иной, в том числе связанной с повышением своего профессионального уровня), в пределах установленной продолжительности рабочего времени, определяется локальным нормативным актом организации в зависимости от занимаемой должности работника. В разделе 7 Порядка устанавливается верхний предел учебной нагрузки педагогических работников. В зависимости от занимаемой должности учебная нагрузка педагогических работников ограничивается верхним пределом в следующих случаях: - в организациях, осуществляющих образовательную деятельность по образовательным программам среднего профессионального образования, преподавателям, норма часов учебной (преподавательской) работы за ставку заработной платы которых составляет 720 часов в год, верхний предел учебной нагрузки устанавливается в объеме, не превышающем 1 440 часов в учебном году; - в организациях, осуществляющих образовательную деятельность по образовательным программам высшего образования, верхний предел учебной нагрузки, определяемый по должностям профессорско-преподавательского состава устанавливается в объеме, не превышающем 900 часов в учебном году; - в организациях, осуществляющих образовательную деятельность по дополнительным профессиональным программам, верхний предел учебной нагрузки, определяемый по должностям профессорско-преподавательского состава устанавливается в объеме, не превышающем 800 часов в учебном году. Объем учебной нагрузки при работе по совместительству у того же и (или) у другого работодателя на должностях профессорско-преподавательского состава не должен превышать половины от верхнего предела учебной нагрузки, определяемого по должностям профессорско-преподавательского состава. Положением об особенностях режима рабочего времени урегулирован также вопрос, связанный с разделением рабочего дня на части. При решении вопроса о продолжительности работы накануне нерабочих праздничных и выходных дней необходимо руководствоваться статьей 95 Трудового кодекса Российской Федерации, в соответствии с которой продолжительность рабочего дня или смены, непосредственно предшествующих нерабочему праздничному дню, уменьшается на один час. В непрерывно действующих организациях и на отдельных видах работ, где невозможно уменьшение продолжительности работы (смены) в предпраздничный день, переработка компенсируется предоставлением работнику дополнительного времени отдыха или, с согласия работника, оплатой по нормам, установленным для сверхурочной работы. Поскольку в отличие от Кодекса законов о труде РФ, не предусматривавшего уменьшения продолжительности рабочего дня накануне нерабочих праздничных дней у работников, которым в соответствии с законодательством устанавливалась сокращенная продолжительность рабочего времени, новый Трудовой кодекс РФ правило об уменьшении на один час продолжительности рабочего дня (смены), непосредственно предшествующих нерабочему праздничному дню, распространяет на всех работников, в том числе и педагогических. �Содержание Другая часть педагогической работы указанных работников, требующая затрат рабочего времени, которое не конкретизировано по количеству часов, вытекает из их должностных обязанностей, предусмотренных уставом образовательного учреждения и правилами внутреннего трудового распорядка образовательного учреждения, тарифно-квалификационными характеристиками, и регулируется графиками и планами работы, в т. ч. личными планами педагогического работника (выполнение обязанностей, связанных с участием в работе педагогических, методических советов, с работой по проведению родительских собраний, консультаций, оздоровительных, воспитательных и других мероприятий, предусмотренных образовательной программой и др.). Учитывая эту особенность рабочего времени учителей, преподавателей учреждений начального и среднего профессионального образования, педагогов дополнительного образования, тренеровпреподавателей, вряд ли возможно накануне нерабочих праздничных дней применять сокращение на один час к части их рабочего времени, связанной с преподавательской работой. По всей видимости, накануне праздничных дней следует ограничить привлечение указанных работников к другой части их педагогической работы, которая может увеличить их рабочее время по сравнению с учебной нагрузкой, предусмотренной расписанием занятий. В отличие от учителей и других указанных выше педагогических работников, рабочее время лиц из числа профессорско-преподавательского состава образовательных учреждений высшего профессионального образования и образовательных учреждений дополнительного профессионального образования (повышения квалификации) специалистов имеет конкретную продолжительность 36 часов в неделю. В то же время режим рабочего времени этих работников также имеет свои особенности, поскольку определяется с учетом выполнения преподавательской работы и осуществления научноисследовательской, творческо-исполнительской, опытно-конструкторской, учебно-методической, организационно-методической, воспитательной, физкультурной, спортивно-оздоровительной работы. Режим выполнения преподавательской работы регулируется расписанием учебных занятий. Объем преподавательской работы каждого преподавателя определяется образовательным учреждением самостоятельно в зависимости от квалификации работника и профиля кафедры. В правилах внутреннего трудового распорядка образовательного учреждения, других локальных актах необходимо также определить должны ли преподаватели выполнять указанную работу непосредственно в образовательном учреждении или она может осуществляться за его пределами. �Содержание 2.2. Особенности отпуска для педагогических работников Педагогические работники являют собой особую категорию персонала, права и обязанности, а также специфика организации трудовых отношений с которыми обозначена в отдельном разделе трудового законодательства. Особые условия касаются и вопросов регулирования отпусков. В частности, общеизвестно, что работающие в сфере образования лица имеют право на удлиненный ежегодный трудовой отпуск. Целесообразно разобраться в том, сколько составляет отпуск учителей и на каких основаниях он предоставляется более подробно. Основанием для определения продолжительности отпуска педагогических работников, порядка его организации и расчета выплат выступает Трудовой кодекс РФ: - статья 333 – описывает порядок организации и длительность рабочего времени; - статья 334 – раскрывает основные аспекты ежегодного удлиненного оплачиваемого отпуска; - статья 335 – подробно излагает специфику длительного отпуска. Более детальные вопросы организации времени отдыха для работников образования в течение года рассматривают такие нормативно-правовые акты РФ, как: ФЗ «Об образовании в РФ» (ст. 47); Приказ Минобрнауки России от 22.12.2014 № 1601 (о продолжительности рабочего времени педагогических работников); Постановление Правительства РФ № 466 (об удлиненных ежегодных оплачиваемых отпусках). Эти законодательные акты детально раскрывают основания для предоставления свободного времени сотрудникам, определяют его продолжительность, а также устанавливают процесс расчета необходимых выплат. Педагогические работники ровно так же, как и иные категории персонала, наделены правом на получение ежегодного отпуска, за который они будут получать выплаты в размере среднего оклада, а также на ряд иных дополнительных отпусков. Важной особенностью в данном случае выступает тот факт, что отпуска приходятся преимущественно на время каникул учащихся. Как и иные категории работников, право на ежегодный оплачиваемый отпуск имеют право и работники образовательных учреждений (ст. 21 ТК РФ). Работники заранее информируются о сроках предоставления отпусков, выплаты осуществляются до выхода работника на заслуженный ежегодный отдых, отпуск должен предоставляться работнику ежегодно: очередной – во время каникул, по требованию – в любое время года, для педагогических работников время пребывания в отпуске в отличие от обычных категорий персонала увеличено в два раза (стандартная длительность отпуска – 28 дней). Во время отпуска неизменным остается должность человека, его оклад: руководство образовательного учреждения не имеет права уволить его или оформить его перевод на другую должность. Перед выходом работника в отпуск с ним согласовывается рабочая учебная нагрузка на будущий год. Это происходит потому, что к моменту выхода на рабочее место был сформирован график работы и определены параметры расчета заработной платы. В случае необходимости и при наличии веских причин работнику образовательного учреждения могут предоставить отпуск без денежного содержания в любое время года. Отпуск может быть предоставлен работнику, если его отсутствие не отразится негативно на образовательном процессе. В этом свете работник должен уведомить руководство заранее, чтобы ему могли найти временную замену. Сотрудник должен предоставить руководству заявление с указанием причин прошения о внеочередном отпуске без содержания и его сроках. �Содержание Следует отметить, что педагогический работник также имеет право на длительный отпуск до одного года не реже чем раз в 10 лет. Отпуска, предоставляемые работникам сферы образования, считают удлиненными, поскольку они увеличены в два раза по сравнению с отпусками персонала иных сфер деятельности. Удлиненный отпуск педагогических работников обуславливается высокой психической и эмоциональной нагрузкой, которую испытывает данная категория персонала в течение года. В общем виде можно говорить о существовании двух видов отпусков педработников: длительностью 56 и 42 дня. 56 дней предоставляется отпуск сотрудникам: - организаций начального, среднего и высшего образования; - организованных на базе школ комбинатов и мастерских; - курсов повышения квалификации; - служб психологической помощи при образовательных учреждениях; - медицинских учреждений, практикующих педагогическую деятельность. 42 дня предоставляется отпуск сотрудникам: - организаций дошкольного и дополнительного образования; - кабинетов, занимающихся учебно-методической работой; - иных образовательных структур. Перед выходом в отпуск все сотрудники образовательных учреждений получают в бухгалтерии выплаты, размер которых составляет средний заработок сотрудника за день его работы, умноженный на число дней отпуска. Таким образом, для педагогических работников, как для особой категории персонала, действуют специфические условия установления, оформления отпусков, их оплаты и времени предоставления. Существуют также и определенные основания, которые позволяют сотрудникам из сферы образования рассчитывать на ежегодный удлиненный и дополнительные отпуска. �Содержание Вопросы к главе 2 1. Какие нормативно-правовые акты определяют нормы рабочего времени для педагогического работника? 2. Каковы нормы часов учебной работы для преподавателей организаций, осуществляющих деятельность по дополнительным образовательным программам в области искусств? 3. Назовите основные положения Приказа Министерства образования РФ от 22 декабря 2014? 4. В каких нормах ТК РФ раскрываются аспекты относительно времени отдыха педработника? 5. Каким сотрудникам образовательной организации предоставляется 42 дня для отпуска? �Содержание Глава 3. Основные аспекты регулирования оплаты труда педагогических работников 3.1. Оплата труда педагогических работников: новые подходы 3.2. Стимулирующие выплаты для педагогических работников Вопросы к главе 3 �Содержание 3.1. Оплата труда педагогических работников: новые подходы Новая система оплаты труда разрабатывается для государственных образовательных учреждений субъектов Российской Федерации и муниципальных образовательных учреждений, реализующих программы начального общего, основного общего, среднего (полного) общего образования (далее – образовательные учреждения), и применяется в отношении работников, участвующих в реализации названных программ (в том числе в отношении учебно-вспомогательного и административного персонала). При регулировании вопросов оплаты труда работников федеральных образовательных организаций необходимо руководствоваться Отраслевым соглашением по организациям, находящимся в ведении министерства образования и науки Российской Федерации на 2015–2017 годы. Системы оплаты труда работников федеральных образовательных организаций устанавливаются коллективными договорами, соглашениями, локальными нормативными актами в соответствии с федеральными законами и иными нормативными актами Российской Федерации. Работодатели с участием выборного органа первичной профсоюзной организации разрабатывают положение об оплате труда работников организации, которое является приложением к коллективному договору, предусматривают в положении об оплате труда работников организации регулирование вопросов оплаты труда с учетом: обеспечения зависимости заработной платы каждого работника от его квалификации, сложности выполняемой работы, количества и качества затраченного труда без ограничения ее максимальным размером; обеспечения работодателем равной оплаты за труд равной ценности, а также недопущения какой бы то ни было дискриминации – различий, исключений и предпочтений, не связанных с деловыми качествами работников; формирования размеров окладов (должностных окладов), ставок заработной платы по квалификационным уровням профессиональных квалификационных групп, не допуская установление различных размеров окладов (должностных окладов), ставок заработной платы, различных повышающих коэффициентов к ним (либо диапазонов «вилки» размеров окладов (должностных окладов), ставок заработной платы) по должностям работников с одинаковой квалификацией, выполняющих одинаковую трудовую функцию; существенной дифференциации в размерах оплаты труда педагогических работников, имеющих квалификационные категории, установленные по результатам аттестации; возможности перераспределения средств, предназначенных на оплату труда, стремясь к достижению доли условно постоянной части заработной платы работников в виде окладов (должностных окладов), ставок заработной платы в структуре их заработной платы (без учета районных коэффициентов и процентных надбавок к заработной плате лиц, работающих в районах Крайнего Севера и приравненных к ним местностях) не ниже 60 %; обеспечения повышения уровня реального содержания заработной платы работников организаций и других гарантий по оплате труда, предусмотренных трудовым законодательством и иными нормативными правовыми актами, содержащими нормы трудового права; размеров выплат за выполнение сверхурочных работ, работу в выходные и нерабочие праздничные дни, выполнение работ в других условиях, отклоняющихся от нормальных, но не ниже размеров, установленных трудовым законодательством и иными нормативными правовыми актами, содержащими нормы трудового права; создания условий для оплаты труда работников в зависимости от их личного участия в эффективном функционировании организации; применения типовых норм труда для однородных работ (межотраслевые, отраслевые и иные нормы труда); продолжительности рабочего времени либо норм часов педагогической работы за ставку заработной платы, порядка определения учебной нагрузки, оговариваемой в трудовом договоре, оснований ее изменения, случаев установления верхнего предела, предусматриваемых нормативными правовыми актами, в порядке, установленном Правительством Российской Федерации; определения размеров выплат компенсационного или стимулирующего характера от размера оклада (должностного оклада, ставки �Содержание заработной платы), установленного работнику за исполнение им трудовых (должностных) обязанностей за календарный месяц либо за норму часов педагогической работы в неделю (в год); определения размеров выплат стимулирующего характера, в том числе размеров премий, на основе формализованных критериев определения достижимых результатов работы, измеряемых качественными и количественными показателями, для всех категорий работников организаций. При разработке и утверждении в организациях показателей и критериев эффективности работы в целях осуществления стимулирования качественного труда работников учитываются следующие основные принципы: размер вознаграждения работника должен определяться на основе объективной оценки результатов его труда (принцип объективности); работник должен знать, какое вознаграждение он получит в зависимости от результатов своего труда (принцип предсказуемости); вознаграждение должно быть адекватно трудовому вкладу каждого работника в результат деятельности всей организации, его опыту и уровню квалификации (принцип адекватности); вознаграждение должно следовать за достижением результата (принцип своевременности); правила определения вознаграждения должны быть понятны каждому работнику (принцип справедливости); принятие решений о выплатах и их размерах должны осуществляться по согласованию с выборным органом первичной профсоюзной организации (принцип прозрачности). В случаях, когда размер оплаты труда работника зависит от стажа, образования, квалификационной категории, государственных наград и (или) ведомственных знаков отличия, ученой степени, право на его изменение возникает в следующие сроки: - при увеличении стажа педагогической работы, стажа работы по специальности – со дня достижения соответствующего стажа, если документы находятся в организации, или со дня представления документа о стаже, дающем право на повышение размера ставки (оклада) заработной платы; - при получении образования или восстановлении документов об образовании – со дня представления соответствующего документа; - при установлении квалификационной категории – со дня вынесения решения аттестационной комиссией; - при присвоении почетного звания, награждения ведомственными знаками отличия – со дня присвоения, награждения; - при присуждении ученой степени доктора наук и кандидата наук – со дня принятия Минобрнауки России решения о выдаче диплома. При наступлении у работника права на изменение размеров оплаты в период пребывания его в ежегодном оплачиваемом или другом отпуске, а также в период его временной нетрудоспособности выплата заработной платы (исходя из более высокого размера) производится со дня окончания отпуска или временной нетрудоспособности. Образовательные организации, реализующие общеобразовательные программы, дополнительные образовательные программы, образовательные программы среднего профессионального образования, учитывают особенности оплаты труда отдельных категорий педагогических работников). Работодатели осуществляют оплату труда работников в ночное время (с 22 часов до 6 часов) в повышенном размере, но не ниже 35 % часовой тарифной ставки (части оклада (должностного оклада), рассчитанного за час работы) за каждый час работы в ночное время. Конкретные размеры повышения оплаты труда за работу в ночное время устанавливаются коллективным договором, локальным нормативным актом, принимаемым с учетом мнения выборного органа первичной профсоюзной организации, трудовым договором. Переработка рабочего времени воспитателей, помощников воспитателей, младших воспитателей �Содержание вследствие неявки сменяющего работника или родителей, а также работа в детских оздоровительных лагерях, осуществляемая по инициативе работодателя за пределами рабочего времени, установленного графиками работ, является сверхурочной работой. Сверхурочная работа оплачивается за первые два часа работы не менее чем в полуторном размере, за последующие часы – не менее чем в двойном размере. Конкретные размеры оплаты за сверхурочную работу могут определяться коллективным договором или трудовым договором. Работодатель с учетом мнения выборного органа первичной профсоюзной организации в порядке, предусмотренном статьей 372 Трудового кодекса Российской Федерации для принятия локальных нормативных актов устанавливает конкретные размеры доплат. Оплата труда учителей, преподавателей, имеющих квалификационные категории, осуществляется с учетом квалификационной категории независимо от преподаваемого предмета (дисциплины, курса), а по должностям работников, по которым применяется наименование «старший» (воспитатель – старший воспитатель, педагог дополнительного образования – старший педагог дополнительного образования, методист – старший методист, инструктор-методист – старший инструктор-методист, тренер-преподаватель – старший тренер-преподаватель), независимо от того, по какой конкретно должности присвоена квалификационная категория. Минобрнауки России и Профсоюз рекомендуют предусматривать в региональных и территориальных соглашениях, в коллективных договорах следующие положения: производить оплату труда педагогических работников с учетом имеющейся квалификационной категории за выполнение педагогической работы по должности с другим наименованием, по которой не установлена квалификационная категория. В целях повышения социального статуса работника образования, престижа педагогической профессии и мотивации труда в России рассматриваются меры по повышению уровня оплаты труда работников; установлению размеров базовых окладов (базовых должностных окладов, базовых ставок заработной платы) по всем категориям работников; ежегодному увеличению фонда оплаты труда организаций на величину фактической инфляции в предшествующем году. Положением об оплате труда работников образовательного учреждения может быть предусмотрено установление повышающего коэффициента к окладу (должностному окладу), ставке работников, имеющих ученую степень (кандидат, доктор наук), ученое звание (доцент, профессор), а также персонального повышающего коэффициента. Решение об установлении повышающих коэффициентов и их размерах принимается руководителем учреждения в отношении конкретного работника с учетом обеспечения указанных выплат финансовыми средствами. Персональный повышающий коэффициент к рекомендуемым окладам (должностным окладам), ставкам устанавливается работнику с учетом уровня его профессиональной подготовки, сложности, важности выполняемой работы, степени самостоятельности и ответственности при выполнении поставленных задач и других факторов. Такой коэффициент может быть установлен только на определенный период времени. Общая и специальная части фонда оплаты труда педагогического персонала, непосредственно осуществляющего учебный процесс, распределяются, исходя из стоимости бюджетной образовательной услуги на одного обучающегося с учетом повышающих коэффициентов (например, за сложность и приоритетность предмета в зависимости от специфики образовательной программы учреждения, за обучение детей с отклонениями в развитии, за квалификационную категорию педагога). Чаще всего в Положениях о НСОТ различных субъектов РФ используется повышающий коэффициент к окладу за квалификационную категорию. Это единственный коэффициент, позволяющий учитывать квалификационные характеристики педагога в модели оплаты труда, основанной на стоимости ученико-часа. �Содержание 3.2. Стимулирующие выплаты для педагогических работников В соответствии с действующей системой оплаты труда педагогических работников зарплата учителей формируется из двух частей: базовой (обеспечивает гарантированную заработную плату, размер которой зафиксирован) и стимулирующей (размер которой может изменяться с определенной периодичностью). Главная причина недовольства педагогов – непонятный механизм формирования и распределения стимулирующей части фонда оплаты труда, хотя имеется достаточно нормативных правовых актов и разъяснений по данному вопросу. Часть 1 ст. 129 ТК РФ в качестве стимулирующих выплат называет доплаты и надбавки стимулирующего характера, премии и иные поощрительные выплаты. Цель стимулирующих выплат – побуждать работников к повышению количества и качества труда. С помощью стимулирующих доплат и надбавок можно поощрить особо ценных и опытных работников, снизить текучесть кадров, привлечь на работу необходимого специалиста высокой квалификации. Главное – порядок и условия получения стимулирующих выплат должны быть прозрачны и понятны всем работникам образовательной организации. В соответствии со ст. 144 ТК РФ, «работодатель имеет право устанавливать различные системы премирования, доплат и надбавок с учетом мнения профсоюза. Стимулирующие выплаты устанавливаются соглашениями, коллективным договором или локальным нормативным актом (ч. 2 ст. 135 ТК РФ). При этом выработка и принятие решений по распределению стимулирующего фонда, как отмечается в Рекомендациях Минобрнауки РФ, должны осуществляться с обязательным привлечением представителей организаций, осуществляющих государственно-общественное управление в сфере образования, трудовых коллективов и профсоюзных организаций. Информация о результатах должна быть размещена в открытом доступе на сайтах образовательных организаций в Интернете. Образовательной организацией с участием представителей организаций, осуществляющих государственно-общественное управление в сфере образования, трудовых коллективов и профсоюзных организаций разрабатываются показатели эффективности деятельности педагогических работников и индикаторы, на основании которых будет осуществляться учет результатов их деятельности. Доплаты, надбавки и поощрительные выплаты, полагающиеся учителю, должны быть прямо указаны в его трудовом договоре в цифровом выражении либо в формате отсылки к соответствующему локальному нормативному акту или коллективному договору, предусматривающим основания и условия их выплаты. Примерные направления для разработки показателей эффективности деятельности педагогических работников образовательных учреждений приведены в рекомендациях Минобрнауки РФ: 1. Реализация дополнительных проектов (экскурсионные и экспедиционные программы, групповые и индивидуальные учебные проекты обучающихся, социальные проекты, др.). 2. Организация (участие) системных исследований, мониторинга индивидуальных достижений обучающихся. 3. Динамика индивидуальных образовательных результатов мероприятий, промежуточной и итоговой аттестации). (по результатам контрольных 4. Реализация мероприятий, обеспечивающих взаимодействие с родителями обучающихся. �Содержание 5. Участие и результаты участия учеников на олимпиадах, конкурсах, соревнованиях и др. 6. Участие в коллективных педагогических проектах («команда вокруг класса», интегрированные курсы, «виртуальный класс», др.). 7. Участие педагога в разработке и реализации основной образовательной программы. 8. Организация физкультурно-оздоровительной и спортивной работы. 9. Работа с детьми из неблагополучных семей. 10. Создание элементов образовательной инфраструктуры (оформление кабинета, музея и пр.). В сфере высшего образования вузы сами определяют критерии эффективности для стимулирующей оплаты труда и премирования сотрудников. Для распределения между работниками стимулирующей части фонда оплаты труда, как правило, применяется балльная система. Основанием для начисления стимулирующих надбавок служат оценочные листы, где содержатся результаты работы педагога и объём вознаграждения. Стимулирующие выплаты педагогам устанавливаются на основе следующих расчётов: - определяется сумма баллов, полученных каждым педагогом по всем показателям; - определяется стоимость одного балла, для чего фонд оплаты труда, выделенный на стимулирующую часть педагогов, делится на количество баллов, набранных всеми педагогами организации; - стоимость одного балла умножается на количество баллов, набранных педагогом. Выплаты могут устанавливаться на определенный срок: месяц, квартал, полугодие, учебный год. Как было отмечено, порядок распределения стимулирующих выплат педагогам с использованием данных оценки качества их труда определяется локальным актом образовательной организации, например, Положением о распределении стимулирующей части фонда оплаты труда, и регламентом участия органа государственно-общественного управления – Управляющего совета (далее – Совет), профсоюза в распределении стимулирующей части фонда оплаты труда. Возможны следующие варианты: 1. Директор школы предоставляет Совету, профсоюзному комитету на согласование предложения о распределении стимулирующей части,вносятся коррективы. 2. Создается специальная комиссия, в которую входит руководитель образовательной организации, члены совета трудового коллектива и (или) профсоюзной организации. Результаты оценки деятельности педагога по показателям оценки качества, используемым для распределения стимулирующей части фонда оплаты труда, представляются в данную комиссию. Комиссия осуществляет анализ и оценку объективности представленных результатов оценки в части установленных положением о порядке распределения стимулирующей части фонда оплаты труда работников и обобщает данные для подготовки предложений. Комиссия вносит в Совет предложения по денежному весу одного балла оценки профессиональной деятельности работника и персональным стимулирующим выплатам на основе данных оценки. Совет согласовывает или утверждает решение о распределении стимулирующих выплат. Директор �Содержание общеобразовательной организации издает распорядительный акт (приказ) о стимулирующих выплатах. Если фиксированный размер надбавки указан в трудовом договоре, а работодатель считает необходимым уменьшить ее размер, необходимо не менее чем за два месяца уведомить работника под роспись об изменении условий трудового договора (части 1, 2 ст. 74 ТК РФ) и оформить дополнительное соглашение к трудовому договору с работником. При этом придется вносить изменения в коллективный договор и соответствующие локальные акты. Коллективный договор руководитель не может изменить в одностороннем порядке – только через общее собрание организации путем голосования. Если надбавки определены колдоговором, Положением об оплате труда – нужно вносить изменения в эти документы, которые обсуждать также на общем собрании школы, где каждый работник вправе выразить свое несогласие путем голосования. Как видим, так просто изменить величину стимулирующей выплаты нельзя. Если администрация решила обойтись без этапа обсуждения и согласования положений об оплате труда, они не могут считаться законными. Примечание. Начисление работникам премий и других стимулирующих выплат относится к категории прав, а не обязанностей работодателя. Письма, рекомендации носят только рекомендательный характер. В локальном акте (положении о стимулирующей части оплаты труда) указываются: - критерии оценки результативности деятельности для различных категорий работников; - порядок и сроки подведения итогов результативности; - порядок создания и работы экспертной комиссии; - порядок установления стимулирующих выплат и их виды (премии, надбавки, единовременные или разовые по результатам, на определенный период). К выплатам стимулирующего характера относятся выплаты, направленные на стимулирование работника к качественному результату труда, поощрение за выполненную работу. Такие выплаты устанавливаются с учетом критериев, позволяющих оценить результативность и качество работы, с учетом рекомендаций соответствующих федеральных органов исполнительной власти (Приказ Минздравсоцразвития РФ № 818). На стимулирующие выплаты образовательными учреждениями направляется не менее 30 % средств на оплату труда, формируемых за счет ассигнований федерального бюджета. Размеры и условия осуществления таких выплат устанавливаются коллективными договорами, соглашениями, локальными нормативными актами в соответствии с перечнем видов выплат стимулирующего характера в федеральных бюджетных, автономных, казенных учреждениях согласно приложению 1 к Приказу Минздравсоцразвития РФ № 818 в пределах фонда оплаты труда. Указанный перечень включает следующие виды выплат: - за интенсивность и высокие результаты работы, то есть поощрение работника за участие в выполнении важных работ, мероприятий, за особый режим работы, за организацию и проведение мероприятий, направленных на повышение престижа учреждения, и др.; - за качество выполняемых работ; данные выплаты предполагают поощрение работника за успешное и добросовестное исполнение своих должностных обязанностей, инициативу, качественную �Содержание подготовку и проведение мероприятий, связанных с уставной деятельностью учреждения, и т. п.; - за стаж непрерывной работы, выслугу лет; такие выплаты стимулируют работников образования к продолжительной работе; - премиальные по итогам работы. Перечисленные виды выплат стимулирующего характера устанавливаются работнику с учетом критериев, позволяющих оценить результативность и качество его работы с учетом рекомендаций соответствующих федеральных органов исполнительной власти. В связи с этим локальные нормативные документы подлежат согласованию с вышестоящим органом. Для образовательных организаций примерные показатели стимулирования работников утверждены Приказом Минобрнауки РФ от 08.11.2010 № 1116 «О целевых показателях эффективности работы бюджетных образовательных учреждений, находящихся в ведении Министерства образования и науки Российской Федерации». Конкретные показатели стимулирования работников за количество, интенсивность и качество труда разрабатываются и утверждаются каждой образовательной организацией самостоятельно. Их размеры рекомендуется устанавливать в процентном отношении к окладам (ставкам) либо в абсолютном размере. В то же время п. 26 Положения № 1600 предусмотрено, что максимальный размер выплаты стимулирующего характера по итогам работы не ограничен. Стимулирующие выплаты производятся по решению руководителя образовательного учреждения в пределах бюджетных ассигнований на оплату труда работников учреждения, а также в пределах средств от предпринимательской и иной приносящей доход деятельности, направленных учреждением на оплату труда работников. �Содержание Вопросы к главе 3 1. Перечислите основные нормативно-правовые акты по проблемам оплаты труда педагогических работников. 2. Охарактеризуйте систему оплаты труда в отношении отдельных категорий педагогических работников. 3. Что представляет собой базовая и стимулирующая части оплаты труда? 4. Какие направления по совершенствованию системы оплаты труда педработников отмечены в Отраслевом соглашении? 5. Какие правила существуют в законодательстве относительно оплаты сверхурочных работ? 6. Определите цель введения стимулирующих выплат для педработников. 7. В чем состоит сущность повышающего коэффициента? 8. Что вы можете пояснить по поводу механизма распределения стимулирующих выплат? �Содержание Глава 4. Ответственность педагогических работников по российскому законодательству Правовая ответственность применительно к субъектам образовательных правоотношений может быть условно подразделена на образовательно-правовую ответственность (предусмотренную образовательным законодательством) и ответственность «обычную», т. е. предусмотренную нормами традиционны отраслей права, прежде всего, трудовым, гражданским, административным, а также уголовным. Специфика образовательных отношений, проявляется в том, что нормы, прежде всего, трудового и гражданского права, регулируют данные отношения и представляют собой часть норм образовательного права. К примеру, образовательно-дисциплинарная ответственность педагогических работников в общем виде предусмотрена законом РФ «Об образовании в РФ», причем эта ответственность во многом близка с ответственностью по трудовом праву. Согласно статье 48-ФЗ № 273 педагогические работники обязаны: 1) осуществлять свою деятельность на высоком профессиональном уровне, обеспечивать в полном объеме реализацию преподаваемых учебных предмета, курса, дисциплины (модуля) в соответствии с утвержденной рабочей программой; 2) соблюдать правовые, нравственные и этические нормы, следовать требованиям профессиональной этики; 3) уважать честь и достоинство обучающихся и других участников образовательных отношений; 4) развивать у обучающихся познавательную активность, самостоятельность, инициативу, творческие способности, формировать гражданскую позицию, способность к труду и жизни в условиях современного мира, формировать у обучающихся культуру здорового и безопасного образа жизни; 5) применять педагогически обоснованные и обеспечивающие высокое качество образования формы, методы обучения и воспитания; 6) учитывать особенности психофизического развития обучающихся и состояние их здоровья, соблюдать специальные условия, необходимые для получения образования лицами с ограниченными возможностями здоровья, взаимодействовать при необходимости с медицинскими организациями; 7) систематически повышать свой профессиональный уровень; 8) проходить аттестацию на соответствие занимаемой должности в порядке, установленном законодательством об образовании; 9) проходить в соответствии с трудовым законодательством предварительные при поступлении на работу и периодические медицинские осмотры, а также внеочередные медицинские осмотры по направлению работодателя; 10) проходить в установленном законодательством Российской Федерации порядке обучение и проверку знаний и навыков в области охраны труда; 11) соблюдать устав образовательной организации, положение о специализированном структурном образовательном подразделении организации, осуществляющей обучение, правила внутреннего трудового распорядка. Педагогический работник организации, осуществляющей образовательную деятельность, в том числе в �Содержание качестве индивидуального предпринимателя, не вправе оказывать платные образовательные услуги обучающимся в данной организации, если это приводит к конфликту интересов педагогического работника. Педагогическим работникам запрещается использовать образовательную деятельность для политической агитации, принуждения обучающихся к принятию политических, религиозных или иных убеждений либо отказу от них, для разжигания социальной, расовой, национальной или религиозной розни, для агитации, пропагандирующей исключительность, превосходство либо неполноценность граждан по признаку социальной, расовой, национальной, религиозной или языковой принадлежности, их отношения к религии, в том числе посредством сообщения обучающимся недостоверных сведений об исторических, о национальных, религиозных и культурных традициях народов, а также для побуждения обучающихся к действиям, противоречащим Конституции Российской Федерации. Педагогические работники несут ответственность за неисполнение или ненадлежащее исполнение возложенных на них обязанностей в порядке и в случаях, которые установлены федеральными законами. Неисполнение или ненадлежащее исполнение педагогическими работниками обязанностей, предусмотренных частью 1 настоящей статьи, учитывается при прохождении ими аттестации. Если попытаться обобщить основания юридической (образовательно-дисциплинарной и трудовой) ответственности к педагогическим работникам, то они сводятся к следующему. Педагогические работники несут дисциплинарную ответственность за: - повторное в течение года грубое нарушение устава образовательного учреждения; - применение (даже однократное) методов воспитания и обучения, связанных с физическим и (или) психическим насилием над личностью обучающегося; - появление на работе в состоянии алкогольного, наркотического или токсического опьянения; - невнимательность, допущенную к жизни и здоровью детей во время проведения уроков (занятий), вне учебных мероприятий; - некорректное поведение по отношению к родителям обучающихся, коллегам; - недостойное поведение на работе, в быту и общественных местах; - несоблюдение требований техники безопасности и охраны труда, производственной санитарии, гигиены, противопожарной и экологической безопасности. Помимо рассмотренного вида правовой ответственности педагогические работники могут (должны) нести гражданско-правовую и материальную ответственность. Такая ответственность предусмотрена как образовательным законодательством, так и собственно гражданским и трудовым. За нарушение норм трудового распорядка, профессионального поведения педагоги и другие работники образовательных организаций несут дисциплинарную, административную и уголовную ответственность. За совершение дисциплинарного проступка на педагога могут быть возложены следующие дисциплинарные взыскания: - замечание; - выговор; �Содержание - увольнение по соответствующим основаниям. Основания для прекращения трудового договора (увольнения) предусмотрены трудовым законодательством; помимо этого, основаниями для увольнения педагогического работника по инициативе администрации являются: - повторное в течение одного года грубое нарушение устава образовательного учреждения; - применение, в том числе однократное, методов воспитания, связанные с физическим и (или) психическим насилием над личностью обучающегося, воспитанника. Дисциплинарное расследование нарушений педагогическим работником норм профессионального поведения и (или) устава образовательной организации может быть проведено только по поступившей на него жалобе, поданной в письменной форме. Копия жалобы обязательно должна вручаться педагогическому работнику. Весь ход дисциплинарного расследования и принятые по его результатам решения могут быть преданы гласности только с согласия заинтересованного педагогического работника, за исключением случаев, ведущих к запрещению заниматься педагогической деятельностью, или при необходимости защиты интересов учащихся. За неисполнение или ненадлежащее исполнение обязанностей по воспитанию несовершеннолетних педагогическим или другим работником образовательной организации, обязанного осуществлять надзор за несовершеннолетними, если это деяние соединено с жестоким обращением, установлена уголовная ответственность. Уголовный кодекс Российской Федерации предусматривает в качестве меры уголовного наказания лишение права заниматься определенной деятельностью на срок от одного года до пяти лет. К примеру, есть ряд статей в главе «Преступления против интересов семьи и несовершеннолетних» (ст. 150–157). Педагогический работник, как и всякий другой, может и обязан нести в установленном порядке материальную ответственность, предусмотренную ст. 232, 233, 238, 241–244, 246–248 Трудового кодекса. Непосредственными мерами такой ответственности возмещение прямого действительного ущерба, причиненного наличному имуществу работодателя образовательного учреждения (уменьшение этого имущества или ухудшение его состояния). При этом размер материальной ответственности работника не может превышать, как правило, его месячного заработка, если иное не предусмотрено Трудовым кодексом или иными федеральными законами (ст. 241 ТК РФ). Кроме того, и это едва ли не самое главное, педагогический работник может быть принужден к возмещению ущерба в полном размере (т. е. даже в случае превышения данного ущерба размера месячного заработка работника) в ряде случаев. К этим случаям закон относит (ст. 243 ТК РФ): - когда в соответствии с Трудовым кодексом или иными федеральными законами на работника возложена материальная ответственность в полном размере за ущерб, причиненный работодателю при исполнении работником трудовых обязанностей; - недостачи ценностей, вверенных ему на основании специального письменного договора или полученных им по разовому документу; - умышленного причинения ущерба; �Содержание - причинения ущерба в состоянии алкогольного, наркотического или токсического опьянения; - причинения ущерба в результате преступных действий работника, установленных приговором суда; - причинения ущерба в результате административного проступка, если таковой установлен соответствующим государственным органом; - разглашения сведений, составляющих охраняемую законом тайну (служебную, коммерческую или иную), в случаях, предусмотренных федеральными законами; - причинения ущерба не при исполнении работником трудовых обязанностей. Таким образом, вопросы правовой ответственности педагогических работников как важного элемента их правового статуса в российском образовательном законодательстве пока еще не нашла своего должного отражения. Однако характеристика правовой ответственности педагогических работников имеет большое внимание в контексте совершенствования образовательного законодательства и повышения роли и значимости дисциплины во всех сферах общества, в том числе и в сфере образования. Согласно части 4 статьи 48 закона педагогические работники могут быть привлечены к ответственности за неисполнение или ненадлежащее исполнение своих обязанностей, установленных федеральным законом. Однако законодатель не уточняет ни меры ответственности, ни ее характер. Единственная предусмотренная мера – это учет исполнения обязанностей при проведении аттестации. Но опять же не понятен порядок реализации данной меры на практике. Согласно обязанностям, приведенным подп. 9 и 10 ч. 1 статьи 48 закона, работник может быть не допущен к работе за непрохождение медицинского осмотра и обучения (инструктажа) по технике безопасности в соответствии с трудовым законодательством. В остальных же случаях предусмотреть ответственность предлагается образовательным организациям в локальных нормативных актах, и данная ответственность будет относиться к дисциплинарной. Порядок привлечения педагогического работника к дисциплинарной ответственности должен применяться на основе Трудового кодекса Российской Федерации. Таким образом, вопросы юридической ответственности педагогических работников как важного элемента правового статуса имеют большое значение в контексте совершенствование законодательства об образовании. Работники образовательных учреждений, связанные с процессом обучения, несут административную и уголовную ответственность. Уголовная ответственность установлена за неисполнение или ненадлежащее исполнение обязанностей по воспитанию несовершеннолетних педагогическим или другим работником образовательного учреждения, обязанного осуществлять надзор за несовершеннолетним, если это деяние соединено с жестоким обращением (ст. 150–157 УК РФ) Вопросы к главе 4 1. Что включает в себя образовательно-дисциплинарная ответственность педработника? 2. Перечислите виды дисциплинарных взысканий в отношении педагогического работника. 3. Имеет ли право образовательная организация своим локальным актом устанавливать меры дисциплинарной ответственности? 4. Перечислите составы преступлений по УК педагогического работника. РФ, связанные со специальным статусом �Содержание Глава 5. Охрана труда педагогических работников Конституция РФ в качестве одного из основных прав граждан закрепила право на охрану здоровья (ст. 41). Под охраной труда понимается некий правовой институт трудового права, объединяющий нормы, непосредственно направленные на обеспечение условий труда, безопасных для жизни и здоровья работников. Он включает следующие нормы: нормы-правила по технике безопасности и производственной санитарии; специальные нормы охраны труда лиц, работающих в тяжелых, вредных и опасных производственных условиях; нормы об охране труда женщин, несовершеннолетних и лиц с пониженной трудоспособностью; нормы регулирующие деятельность органов государственного надзора и общественного контроля, устанавливающие ответственность за нарушение законодательства. Несмотря на то, что труд педагога не является потенциально опасным (не связан с непосредственным риском получения травм или заболеваний в процессе трудовой деятельности) существует четкая должностная инструкция по охране труда преподавателя. Соблюдение этой инструкции является обязательным условием педагогической работы в целом. Пример инструкции по охране труда педагогического работника представлен в приложении 5 настоящего пособия. Для того, чтобы быть допущенным к преподавательской деятельности, необходимо иметь диплом о соответствующем образовании и обладать соответствующими качествами (например, для работы с дошкольниками, старшеклассниками или студентами необходимы разные навыки и знания). Существует также комплекс требований допуска к занятию педагогической деятельность, информация об этом представлена в первой главе настоящего пособия. Еще одним обязательным условием является медицинский осмотр, который работники образовательной сферы должны проходить ежегодно. Также регулярно с педагогическими работниками проводится плановый инструктаж по охране труда, или внеплановый целевой (например, перед вывозом детей в лагерь или походом на экскурсию). Инструктаж педагога обычно включает в себя донесение сведений о первой медицинской помощи, о пожарной безопасности учебного корпуса, об электробезопасности. Кроме того, на педагога возлагается ответственность за безопасность помещения, в котором проводятся занятия, например, он должен следить за состоянием розеток, расстановкой мебели, ликвидировать травмоопасные предметы, ядовитые и колючие растения, обращать внимание на соблюдение санитарных норм и т. д. Во время работы педагогический работник подвергается влиянию ряда вредных и опасных факторов: - Напряжение психических и физиологических систем организма. - Постоянная концентрированность внимания. - Длительные нагрузки статического характера. - Нагрузки зрительного и речевого аппаратов. - Специфичные воздействия и риски – реактивы на уроках химии, ток – на уроках физики и т. д. Охрана труда в сфере направлена на минимизацию факторов риска или их устранение. Педагог имеет право требовать достаточного освещения на рабочем месте, качественного технологического обеспечения, соблюдения санитарно-гигиенических норм работ (регулярное проветривание, влажная уборка и т. д.). При нарушениях каких-либо норм педагогический работник обязан сообщить в администрацию учебного заведения, а также лицу, ответственному за соблюдение норм охраны труда. В образовательных организациях различных уровней образования могут разрабатываться положения о внутренних службах по охране труда педагогов и других работников образовательных организаций. Примерное положение о системе управления охраной труда, утвержденное приказом Министерства �Содержание труда и социальной защиты РФ от 19 августа 2016 года, представлено в приложении 5. Федеральный закон Российской Федерации от 29 декабря 2012 г. № 273-ФЗ «Об образовании в Российской Федерации» содержит положения, которые обязывают образовательные учреждения заботиться о здоровье обучаемых и проводить работу по расследованию и учету несчастных случаев с обучающимися во время пребывания в организации и профилактике несчастных случаев. Статья 41. Охрана здоровья обучающихся. 1. Охрана здоровья обучающихся включает в себя… 8) обеспечение безопасности обучающихся во время пребывания в организации, осуществляющей образовательную деятельность; 9) профилактику несчастных случаев с обучающимися во время пребывания в организации, осуществляющей образовательную деятельность. 4. Организации, осуществляющие образовательную деятельность, при реализации образовательных программ создают условия для охраны здоровья обучающихся, в том числе обеспечивают: 4) расследование и учет несчастных случаев с обучающимися во время пребывания в организации, осуществляющей образовательную деятельность, в порядке, установленном федеральным органом исполнительной власти, осуществляющим функции по выработке государственной политики и нормативно-правовому регулированию в сфере образования, по согласованию с федеральным органом исполнительной власти, осуществляющим функции по выработке государственной политики и нормативно-правовому регулированию в сфере здравоохранения. Расследование и учет несчастных случаев в школе, к примеру, очень тесно связано с проблемой охраны труда педагогических работников и производится по следующим правилам: 1. О каждом несчастном случае, происшедшем с учащимся или воспитанником, пострадавший или очевидец несчастного случая немедленно извещает руководителя учебно-воспитательного процесса, который обязан: срочно организовать первую доврачебную помощь пострадавшему и его доставку в здравпункт (медсанчасть) или другое лечебное учреждение, сообщить о происшедшем руководителю учреждения, в отдел охраны труда (при наличии такового), сохранить до расследования обстановку места происшествия (если это не угрожает жизни и здоровью окружающих и не приведет к аварии). 2. Руководитель учреждения обязан немедленно принять меры к устранению причин, вызвавших несчастный случай, сообщить о происшедшем несчастном случае в вышестоящий орган управления образованием, родителям пострадавшего или лицам, представляющим его интересы, запросить заключение из медицинского учреждения о характере и тяжести повреждения у пострадавшего. 3. Руководитель высшего (среднего специального) образованием обязан немедленно: учебного заведения, органа управления - Сообщить вышестоящему органу управления образованием. - Назначить комиссию по расследованию несчастного случая в составе: председатель комиссии – представитель руководства высшего (среднего специального) учебного заведения, органа управления образованием, члены комиссии – представители администрации, отдела охраны труда или инспектор по охране труда и здоровья, педагогического коллектива. 4. Комиссия по расследованию несчастного случая обязана: - В течение трех суток провести расследование обстоятельств и причин несчастного случая, выявить �Содержание и опросить очевидцев и лиц, допустивших нарушения правил безопасности жизнедеятельности, по возможности получить объяснение от пострадавшего. Перечень документов при регистрации несчастных случаев с учащимися в образовательном учреждении. 1. Объяснительная записка учителя. 2. Приказ директора образовательного учреждения о назначении комиссии по расследованию несчастного случая. 3. Акт о несчастном случае по форме Н-2 в 4-х экземплярах. 4. Объяснительные очевидцев происшествия. 5. Объяснительная записка пострадавшего (если это возможно). 6. Вносится запись в журнал регистрации несчастных случаев с учащимися. 7. Заполняется сообщение о последствиях несчастного случая с пострадавшим. 8. Разрабатываются мероприятия по устранению причин несчастного случая. 9. Ксерокопия «Лист здоровья» (из журнала), ксерокопия из журнала регистрации инструктажа с учащимися. 10. Медицинское заключение1. Соблюдение педагогом инструкции по охране труда очень важно, поскольку от этого нередко зависят здоровье и жизни самого педагога, так и детей, с которыми он работает. При этом каждый педагог должен обладать знанием алгоритма действий по факту несчастного случая. Данные знания обеспечивают нормативное поведение педагога в сложившейся системе охраны труда в образовательной организации. Вопросы к главе 5 1. Какие нормативно-правовые акты определяют систему охраны труда? 2. Дайте определение охраны труда. 3. Какие новеллы в системе охраны труда вы можете раскрыть? 1 Несчастные случаи в школе [Электронный ресурс]. Р ежим доступа: http://apruo.ru/napravleniya-deyatelnosti/ochrana-truda/, свободный. �Содержание Список нормативно-правовых актов и использованной литературы 1. Конституция (Основной Закон) Российской Федерации [Электронный ресурс] : [принята общенародным голосованием в 1993 г.]. – Электрон. дан. – Доступ из информ.-правовой системы «КонсультантПлюс» (версия 2017). 2. Об образовании в Российской Федерации [Электронный ресурс] : Федеральный закон от 29 декабря 2012 года №273-ФЗ. – Электрон. дан. – Доступ из информ.-правовой системы «КонсультантПлюс» (версия 2017). 3. Трудовой кодекс РФ от 1 февраля 2002 года [Электронный ресурс]. – Электрон. дан. – Доступ из информ.-правовой системы «КонсультантПлюс» (версия 2017). 4. Об утверждении номенклатуры должностей педагогических работников организаций, осуществляющих образовательную деятельность, должностей руководителей образовательных организаций [Электронный ресурс] : Постановление Правительства РФ от 8 августа 2013 г. № 678. – Электрон. дан. – Доступ из информ.-правовой системы «КонсультантПлюс» (версия 2017). 5. Трудовой Кодекс Российской Федерации от 30.12.2001 № 197-ФЗ (ред. от 20.01.2017) [Электронный ресурс]. – Электрон. дан. – Доступ из информ.-правовой системы «КонсультантПлюс» (версия 2017). 6. О продолжительности рабочего времени (нормах часов педагогической работы за ставку заработной платы) педагогических работников и о порядке определения учебной нагрузки педагогических работников, оговариваемой в трудовом договоре [Электронный ресурс] : Приказ Минобразования РФ от 22 декабря 2014 № 1601. – Электрон. дан. – Доступ из информ.-правовой системы «КонсультантПлюс» (версия 2017). 7. Об утверждении Перечня видов выплат стимулирующего характера в федеральных бюджетных, автономных, казенных учреждениях и разъяснения о порядке установления выплат стимулирующего характера в этих учреждениях [Электронный ресурс] : Приказ Минздравсоцразвития РФ от 29.12.2007 № 818 (ред. от 17.09.2010). – Электрон. дан. – Доступ из информ.-правовой системы «КонсультантПлюс» (версия 2017). 8. О целевых показателях эффективности работы бюджетных образовательных учреждений, находящихся в ведении Министерства образования и науки Российской Федерации [Электронный ресурс] : Приказ Министерства образования и науки РФ от 8 ноября 2010 г. № 1116. – Электрон. дан. – Доступ из информ.-правовой системы «КонсультантПлюс» (версия 2017). 9. Об утверждении государственной программы Российской Федерации «Развитие образования на 2013-2020 годы» [Электронный ресурс] : Постановление Правительства РФ от 15 апреля 2014 года № 295. – Электрон. дан. – Доступ из информ.-правовой системы «КонсультантПлюс» (версия 2017). 10. Приказ Министерства труда социальной защиты Российской Федерации от 19 августа 2016 № 438 [Электронный ресурс]. – Электрон. дан. – Доступ из информ.-правовой системы «КонсультантПлюс» (версия 2017). 11. Об утверждении Особенностей режима рабочего времени и времени отдыха педагогических и иных работников организаций, осуществляющих образовательную деятельность [Электронный ресурс] : Приказ Министерства образования и науки РФ от 11 мая 2016 года № 536. – Электрон. дан. – �Содержание Доступ из информ.-правовой системы «КонсультантПлюс» (версия 2017). 12. Право на занятие педагогической деятельностью [Электронный ресурс]. – Режим доступа: http:// www.trudkod.ru/kommentarii/chast-4/razdel-12/glava-52/st-331-tk-rf, свободный. 13. Гальперин, А. Э. Применение Трудового кодекса в образовательном учреждении : практическое пособие / А. Э. Гальперин. – Москва : АРКТИ, 2008. – 174 с. 14. Сахарова, Е. А. Правовой статус педагогических работников / Е. А. Сахарова // Молодый ученый. – 2014. – № 21. – С. 539–541. 15. Егорова, А. Н. Юридическая ответственность педагогических работников / А. Н. Егорова // Новое слово в науке: перспективы развития : материалы VI Междунар. науч.-практ. конф. (Чебоксары, 20 ноября 2015 г.) / редкол.: О. Н. Широков [и др.]. – Чебоксары : ЦНС «Интерактив плюс», 2015. – № 4 (6). �Содержание Приложения Приложение 1 Приложение 2 Приложение 3 Приложение 4 Приложение 5 �Содержание Приложение 1 Утверждена постановлением Правительства Российской Федерации от 8 августа 2013 г. № 678 с 1 сентября 2013 г. НОМЕНКЛАТУРА ДОЛЖНОСТЕЙ ПЕДАГОГИЧЕСКИХ РАБОТНИКОВ ОРГАНИЗАЦИЙ, ОСУЩЕСТВЛЯЮЩИХ ОБРАЗОВАТЕЛЬНУЮ ДЕЯТЕЛЬНОСТЬ, ДОЛЖНОСТЕЙ РУКОВОДИТЕЛЕЙ ОБРАЗОВАТЕЛЬНЫХ ОРГАНИЗАЦИЙ I. Должности педагогических работников организаций, осуществляющих образовательную деятельность 1. Должности педагогических работников, отнесенных к профессорско-преподавательскому составу: Ассистент Декан факультета Начальник факультета Директор института Начальник института Доцент Заведующий кафедрой Начальник кафедры Заместитель начальника кафедры Профессор Преподаватель Старший преподаватель 2. Должности иных педагогических работников: Воспитатель Инструктор-методист Инструктор по труду Инструктор по физической культуре Концертмейстер Логопед Мастер производственного обучения Методист Музыкальный руководитель Педагог дополнительного образования Педагог-библиотекарь �Содержание Педагог-организатор Педагог-психолог Преподаватель Преподаватель-организатор основ безопасности жизнедеятельности Руководитель физического воспитания Социальный педагог Старший вожатый Старший воспитатель Старший инструктор-методист Старший методист Старший педагог дополнительного образования Старший тренер-преподаватель Тренер-преподаватель Тьютор Учитель Учитель-дефектолог Учитель-логопед II. Должности руководителей образовательных организаций 1. Должности руководителей: Ректор Директор Заведующий Начальник Президент 2. Должности заместителей руководителей, руководителей структурных подразделений и их заместителей, иные должности руководителей: Заместитель руководителя (директора, заведующего, начальника) Руководитель (директор, заведующий, начальник, управляющий) структурного подразделения Заместитель руководителя (директора, заведующего, начальника, управляющего) структурного подразделения Первый проректор Проректор Помощник ректора Помощник проректора Руководитель (заведующий) учебной (производственной) практики Советник при ректорате Старший мастер �Содержание Ученый секретарь совета образовательной организации Ученый секретарь совета факультета (института) Примечания: 1. К должностям педагогических работников, отнесенных к профессорскопреподавательскому составу, и должностям руководителей образовательных организаций относятся соответственно участвующие в образовательной деятельности директора институтов, начальники институтов, ученые секретари советов институтов, являющихся структурными подразделениями организаций, осуществляющих образовательную деятельность. 2. Наименование должности «логопед» предусмотрено для организаций сферы здравоохранения и социального обслуживания, осуществляющих образовательную деятельность в качестве дополнительного вида деятельности. 3. Должность «преподаватель», предусмотренная в подразделе 1 раздела I настоящего документа, относится к должностям профессорско-преподавательского состава в организациях, осуществляющих образовательную деятельность по реализации образовательных программ высшего образования и дополнительных профессиональных программ. Должность «преподаватель», предусмотренная в подразделе 2 раздела I настоящего документа, относится к должностям иных педагогических работников в организациях, осуществляющих образовательную деятельность, кроме образовательных организаций высшего образования и организаций дополнительного профессионального образования. 4. Должность «тьютор» предусмотрена для организаций, осуществляющих образовательную деятельность, кроме образовательных организаций высшего образования. 5. Должность «президент» предусмотрена только для образовательных организаций высшего образования. 6. Должности «начальник факультета», «начальник института», «начальник кафедры» и «заместитель начальника кафедры» предусмотрены только для образовательных организаций, реализующих образовательные программы высшего образования в области обороны и безопасности государства, обеспечения законности и правопорядка. �Содержание Приложение 2 ПРОДОЛЖИТЕЛЬНОСТЬ РАБОЧЕГО ВРЕМЕНИ (НОРМЫ ЧАСОВ ПЕДАГОГИЧЕСКОЙ РАБОТЫ ЗА СТАВКУ ЗАРАБОТНОЙ ПЛАТЫ) ПЕДАГОГИЧЕСКИХ РАБОТНИКОВ 1. Продолжительность рабочего времени (нормы часов педагогической работы за ставку заработной платы) для педагогических работников устанавливается исходя из сокращенной продолжительности рабочего времени не более 36 часов в неделю. 2. В зависимости от должности и (или) специальности педагогическим работникам устанавливается следующая продолжительность рабочего времени или нормы часов педагогической работы за ставку заработной платы. 2.1. Продолжительность рабочего времени 36 часов в неделю устанавливается: педагогическим работникам, отнесенным к профессорско-преподавательскому составу; старшим воспитателям организаций, осуществляющих образовательную деятельность по образовательным программам дошкольного образования и дополнительным общеобразовательным программам, и домов ребенка, осуществляющих образовательную деятельность в качестве дополнительного вида деятельности; педагогам-психологам; социальным педагогам; педагогам-организаторам; мастерам производственного обучения; старшим вожатым; инструкторам по труду; педагогам-библиотекарям; методистам и старшим методистам организаций, осуществляющих образовательную деятельность; тьюторам организаций, осуществляющих образовательную деятельность, за исключением организаций, осуществляющих образовательную деятельность по образовательным программам высшего образования; руководителям физического воспитания организаций, осуществляющих образовательную деятельность по образовательным программам среднего профессионального образования; преподавателям-организаторам основ безопасности жизнедеятельности; инструкторам-методистам, старшим образовательную деятельность. инструкторам-методистам организаций, осуществляющих 2.2. Продолжительность рабочего времени 30 часов в неделю устанавливается старшим воспитателям (за исключением старших воспитателей, указанных в пункте 2.1 настоящего приложения). 2.3. Норма часов педагогической работы 20 часов в неделю за ставку заработной платы устанавливается: учителям-дефектологам; �Содержание учителям-логопедам. 2.4. Норма часов педагогической работы 24 часа в неделю за ставку заработной платы устанавливается: музыкальным руководителям; концертмейстерам. 2.5. Норма часов педагогической работы 25 часов в неделю за ставку заработной платы устанавливается воспитателям, непосредственно осуществляющим обучение, воспитание, присмотр и уход за обучающимися (воспитанниками) с ограниченными возможностями здоровья. 2.6. Норма часов педагогической работы 30 часов в неделю за ставку заработной платы устанавливается: инструкторам по физической культуре; воспитателям организаций, осуществляющих образовательную деятельность по основным общеобразовательным программам, в которых созданы условия для проживания воспитанников в интернате, а также для осуществления присмотра и ухода за детьми в группах продленного дня, организаций для детей-сирот и детей, оставшихся без попечения родителей, организаций (групп), в том числе санаторных, для обучающихся (воспитанников) с туберкулезной интоксикацией, медицинских организаций, организаций социального обслуживания, осуществляющих образовательную деятельность в качестве дополнительного вида деятельности (далее – медицинские организации и организации социального обслуживания) (за исключением воспитателей, предусмотренных в пунктах 2.5 и 2.7 настоящего приложения). 2.7. Норма часов педагогической работы 36 часов в неделю за ставку заработной платы устанавливается воспитателям организаций, осуществляющих образовательную деятельность по дополнительным общеобразовательным программам, образовательным программам дошкольного образования, образовательным программам среднего профессионального образования, а также осуществляющих присмотр и уход за детьми (за исключением воспитателей, для которых нормы часов педагогической работы за ставку заработной платы предусмотрены пунктами 2.5 и 2.6 настоящего приложения). 2.8. За норму часов педагогической работы за ставку заработной платы педагогических работников, перечисленных в подпунктах 2.8.1 и 2.8.2 настоящего пункта, принимается норма часов учебной (преподавательской) работы, являющаяся нормируемой частью их педагогической работы (далее – норма часов учебной (преподавательской) работы). 2.8.1. Норма часов учебной (преподавательской) работы 18 часов в неделю за ставку заработной платы устанавливается: учителям организаций, осуществляющих образовательную общеобразовательным программам (в том числе адаптированным); деятельность по основным преподавателям организаций, осуществляющих образовательную деятельность по дополнительным общеобразовательным программам в области искусств, физической культуры и спорта; педагогам дополнительного образования и старшим педагогам дополнительного образования; тренерам-преподавателям и старшим тренерам-преподавателям организаций, осуществляющих образовательную деятельность по образовательным программам в области физической культуры и спорта; �Содержание логопедам медицинских организаций и организаций социального обслуживания; учителям иностранного языка дошкольных образовательных организаций; преподавателям организаций, осуществляющих образовательную деятельность по образовательным программам среднего профессионального образования педагогической направленности (за исключением преподавателей указанных организаций, применяющих норму часов учебной (преподавательской) работы 720 часов в год за ставку заработной платы). 2.8.2. Норма часов учебной (преподавательской) работы 720 часов в год за ставку заработной платы устанавливается преподавателям организаций, осуществляющих образовательную деятельность по образовательным программам среднего профессионального образования, в том числе интегрированным образовательным программам в области искусств (за исключением преподавателей, указанных в подпункте 2.8.1 настоящего пункта), и по основным программам профессионального обучения. Примечания: 1. В зависимости от занимаемой должности в рабочее время педагогических работников включается учебная (преподавательская) и воспитательная работа, в том числе практическая подготовка обучающихся, индивидуальная работа с обучающимися, научная, творческая и исследовательская работа, а также другая педагогическая работа, предусмотренная трудовыми (должностными) обязанностями и (или) индивидуальным планом, – методическая, подготовительная, организационная, диагностическая, работа по ведению мониторинга, работа, предусмотренная планами воспитательных, физкультурно-оздоровительных, спортивных, творческих и иных мероприятий, проводимых с обучающимися (в ред. приказа Минобрнауки России от 29.06.2016 № 755). 2. Нормы часов педагогической работы за ставку заработной платы педагогических работников, предусмотренные пунктами 2.3–2.7 настоящего приложения, устанавливаются в астрономических часах. Нормы часов учебной (преподавательской) работы, предусмотренные пунктом 2.8 настоящего приложения, устанавливаются в астрономических часах, включая короткие перерывы (перемены), динамическую паузу. 3. Нормы часов педагогической работы за ставку заработной платы, предусмотренные пунктами 2.5– 2.7 настоящего приложения, и нормы часов учебной (преподавательской) работы, предусмотренные пунктом 2.8 настоящего приложения, являются расчетными величинами для исчисления педагогическим работникам заработной платы за месяц с учетом установленного организацией, осуществляющей образовательную деятельность, объема педагогической работы или учебной (преподавательской) работы в неделю (в год). 4. За педагогическую работу или учебную (преподавательскую) работу, выполняемую педагогическим работником с его письменного согласия сверх установленной нормы часов за ставку заработной платы либо ниже установленной нормы часов за ставку заработной платы, оплата производится из установленного размера ставки заработной платы пропорционально фактически определенному объему педагогической работы или учебной (преподавательской) работы, за исключением случаев выплаты ставок заработной платы в полном размере, гарантируемых согласно пункту 2.2 приложения 2 к настоящему приказу учителям, которым не может быть обеспечена учебная нагрузка в объеме, соответствующем норме часов учебной (преподавательской) работы, установленной за ставку заработной платы в неделю. �Содержание Приложение 3 Утвержден приказом Министерства образования и науки Российской Федерации от 22 декабря 2014 г. № 1601 ПОРЯДОК ОПРЕДЕЛЕНИЯ УЧЕБНОЙ НАГРУЗКИ ПЕДАГОГИЧЕСКИХ РАБОТНИКОВ, ОГОВАРИВАЕМОЙ В ТРУДОВОМ ДОГОВОРЕ I. Общие положения 1.1. Порядок определения учебной нагрузки педагогических работников, оговариваемой в трудовом договоре (далее – Порядок), определяет правила определения учебной нагрузки педагогических работников, оговариваемой в трудовом договоре, основания ее изменения, случаи установления верхнего предела учебной нагрузки в зависимости от должности и (или) специальности педагогических работников с учетом особенностей их труда. 1.2. При определении учебной нагрузки педагогических работников устанавливается ее объем по выполнению учебной (преподавательской) работы во взаимодействии с обучающимися по видам учебной деятельности, установленным учебным планом (индивидуальным учебным планом), текущему контролю успеваемости, промежуточной и итоговой аттестации обучающихся. 1.3. Объем учебной нагрузки педагогических работников, выполняющих учебную (преподавательскую) работу, определяется ежегодно на начало учебного года (тренировочного периода, спортивного сезона) и устанавливается локальным нормативным актом организации, осуществляющей образовательную деятельность. 1.4. Объем учебной нагрузки, установленный педагогическому работнику, оговаривается в трудовом договоре, заключаемом педагогическим работником с организацией, осуществляющей образовательную деятельность. 1.5. Объем учебной нагрузки педагогических работников (за исключением педагогических работников, замещающих должности профессорско-преподавательского состава), установленный на начало учебного года (тренировочного периода, спортивного сезона), не может быть изменен в текущем учебном году (тренировочном периоде, спортивном сезоне) по инициативе работодателя за исключением изменения объема учебной нагрузки педагогических работников, указанных в подпункте 2.8.1 приложения 1 к настоящему приказу, в сторону ее снижения, связанного с уменьшением количества часов по учебным планам, учебным графикам, сокращением количества обучающихся, занимающихся, групп, сокращением количества классов (классов-комплектов). 1.6. Объем учебной нагрузки педагогических работников (за исключением педагогических работников, замещающих должности профессорско-преподавательского состава), установленный в текущем учебном году (тренировочном периоде, спортивном сезоне), не может быть изменен по инициативе работодателя на следующий учебный год (тренировочный период, спортивный сезон) за исключением случаев изменения учебной нагрузки педагогических работников, указанных в пункте 2.8 приложения 1 к настоящему приказу, в сторону ее снижения, связанного с уменьшением количества часов по учебным планам, учебным графикам, сокращением количества обучающихся, занимающихся, групп, сокращением количества классов (классов-комплектов). 1.7. Временное или постоянное изменение (увеличение или снижение) объема учебной нагрузки педагогических работников по сравнению с учебной нагрузкой, оговоренной в трудовом договоре, допускается только по соглашению сторон трудового договора, заключаемого в письменной форме, за исключением изменения объема учебной нагрузки педагогических работников в сторону его снижения, �Содержание предусмотренного пунктами 1.5 и 1.6 настоящего Порядка. 1.8. Об изменениях объема учебной нагрузки (увеличение или снижение), а также о причинах, вызвавших необходимость таких изменений, работодатель обязан уведомить педагогических работников в письменной форме не позднее, чем за два месяца до осуществления предполагаемых изменений, за исключением случаев, когда изменение объема учебной нагрузки осуществляется по соглашению сторон трудового договора. 1.9. Локальные нормативные акты организаций, осуществляющих образовательную деятельность, по вопросам определения учебной нагрузки педагогических работников, осуществляющих учебную (преподавательскую) работу, а также ее изменения принимаются с учетом мнения выборного органа первичной профсоюзной организации или иного представительного органа работников (при наличии такого представительного органа). II. Определение учебной нагрузки учителей и преподавателей, для которых норма часов преподавательской работы составляет 18 часов в неделю за ставку заработной платы, основания ее изменения 2.1. Учебная нагрузка учителей и преподавателей определяется с учетом количества часов по учебным планам, рабочим программам учебных предметов, образовательным программам, кадрового обеспечения организации, осуществляющей образовательную деятельность. 2.2. Выплата ставки заработной платы в полном размере при условии догрузки до установленной нормы часов другой педагогической работой гарантируется следующим учителям, которым не может быть обеспечена учебная нагрузка в объеме, соответствующем норме часов учебной (преподавательской) работы, установленной за ставку заработной платы в неделю: 1–4 классов при передаче преподавания уроков иностранного языка, музыки, изобразительного искусства и физической культуры учителям-специалистам; 1–4 классов, не имеющим необходимой подготовки для ведения уроков русского языка, организаций, осуществляющих образовательную деятельность по образовательным программам начального общего образования с родным (нерусским) языком обучения, расположенных в сельских населенных пунктах; русского языка организаций, осуществляющих образовательную деятельность по образовательным программам начального общего образования с родным (нерусским) языком обучения, расположенных в сельских населенных пунктах; физической культуры организаций, осуществляющих образовательную деятельность по общеобразовательным программам, расположенных в сельских населенных пунктах; иностранного языка организаций, осуществляющих образовательную деятельность по общеобразовательным программам, расположенных в поселках лесозаготовительных и сплавных предприятий и химлесхозов. 2.3. При определении учебной нагрузки на новый учебный год учителям и преподавателям, для которых организация, осуществляющая образовательную деятельность, является основным местом работы, сохраняется ее объем и обеспечивается преемственность преподавания учебных предметов, курсов, дисциплин (модулей) в классах (классах-комплектах), группах, за исключением случаев, предусмотренных пунктом 1.7 настоящего Порядка. Сохранение объема учебной нагрузки и преемственность преподавания учебных предметов, курсов, дисциплин (модулей) у учителей и преподавателей выпускных классов, групп обеспечивается путем предоставления им учебной нагрузки в классах (классах-комплектах), группах, в которых впервые начинается изучение преподаваемых этими учителями и преподавателями учебных предметов, курсов, дисциплин (модулей). �Содержание 2.4. Учителям, а также преподавателям организаций, осуществляющих образовательную деятельность по образовательным программам среднего профессионального образования педагогической направленности, применяющих норму часов учебной (преподавательской) работы 18 часов в неделю за ставку заработной платы, у которых по независящим от них причинам в течение учебного года учебная нагрузка снижается по сравнению с учебной нагрузкой, установленной на начало учебного года, по истечении срока уведомления о ее снижении, предусмотренного пунктом 1.8 настоящего Порядка, до конца учебного года, а также в период каникул, не совпадающий с ежегодным основным удлиненным оплачиваемым отпуском и ежегодным дополнительным оплачиваемым отпуском, выплачивается: заработная плата за фактически оставшееся количество часов учебой (преподавательской) работы, если оно превышает норму часов учебной (преподавательской) работы в неделю, установленную за ставку заработной платы; заработная плата в размере месячной ставки, если объем учебной нагрузки до ее уменьшения соответствовал норме часов учебной (преподавательской) работы в неделю, установленной за ставку заработной платы, и если их невозможно догрузить другой педагогической работой; заработная плата, установленная до уменьшения учебной нагрузки, если она была установлена ниже нормы часов учебной (преподавательской) работы в неделю, установленной за ставку заработной платы, и если их невозможно догрузить другой педагогической работой. 2.5. При возложении на учителей организаций, реализующих основные общеобразовательные программы, для которых указанные организации являются основным местом работы, обязанностей по обучению на дому детей, которые по состоянию здоровья не могут посещать такие организации, количество часов, установленное для обучения таких детей, включается в учебную нагрузку учителей. 2.6. Наступление каникул для обучающихся, в том числе обучающихся на дому, не является основанием для уменьшения учителям учебной нагрузки и заработной платы, в том числе в случаях, когда заключение медицинской организации, являющее основанием для организации обучения на дому, действительно только до окончания учебного года. 2.7. Учебная нагрузка, выполненная в порядке замещения временно отсутствующих по болезни и другим причинам учителей и преподавателей, оплачивается дополнительно. III. Определение учебной нагрузки педагогов дополнительного образования, старших педагогов дополнительного образования и учебной (тренировочной) нагрузки тренеров-преподавателей, старших тренеров-преподавателей, основания ее изменения 3.1. Определение учебной нагрузки педагогов дополнительного образования, старших педагогов дополнительного образования и учебной (тренировочной) нагрузки тренеров-преподавателей, старших тренеров-преподавателей, а также ее изменение осуществляются с учетом особенностей реализации дополнительных общеобразовательных программ в области искусств, физической культуры и спорта, программ спортивной подготовки в соответствии с пунктами 2.1, 2.2, 2.4–2.6 настоящего Порядка. IV. Определение учебной нагрузки преподавателей организаций, осуществляющих образовательную деятельность по образовательным программам среднего профессионального образования, норма часов учебной (преподавательской) работы за ставку заработной платы которых составляет 720 часов в год, основания ее изменения 4.1. Преподавателям организаций, осуществляющих образовательную деятельность по образовательным программам среднего профессионального образования, норма часов учебной (преподавательской) работы за ставку заработной платы которых составляет 720 часов в год, определяется объем годовой учебной нагрузки из расчета на 10 учебных месяцев. �Содержание Учебная нагрузка на выходные и нерабочие праздничные дни не планируется. 4.2. Преподавателям, находящимся в ежегодном основном удлиненном оплачиваемом отпуске и (или) ежегодном дополнительном оплачиваемом отпуске после начала учебного года, учебная нагрузка определяется из расчета ее объема на полный учебный год с последующим применением условий ее уменьшения, предусмотренных пунктом 4.4 настоящего Порядка. 4.3. Преподавателям, принятым на работу в течение учебного года, объем годовой учебной нагрузки определяется на количество оставшихся до конца учебного года полных месяцев. 4.4. В случае, когда учебная нагрузка в определенном на начало учебного года годовом объеме не может быть выполнена преподавателем в связи с нахождением в ежегодном основном удлиненном оплачиваемом отпуске или в ежегодном дополнительном оплачиваемом отпуске, на учебных сборах, в командировке, в связи с временной нетрудоспособностью, определенный ему объем годовой учебной нагрузки подлежит уменьшению на 1/10 часть за каждый полный месяц отсутствия на работе и исходя из количества пропущенных рабочих дней за неполный месяц. 4.5. В случае фактического выполнения преподавателем учебной (преподавательской) работы в день выдачи листка нетрудоспособности, в день отъезда в служебную командировку и день возвращения из служебной командировки уменьшение учебной нагрузки не производится. 4.6. Средняя месячная заработная плата выплачивается ежемесячно независимо от объема учебной нагрузки, выполняемого преподавателями в каждом месяце учебного года, а также в период каникул, не совпадающий с ежегодным основным удлиненным оплачиваемым отпуском и ежегодным дополнительным оплачиваемым отпуском. 4.7. Преподавателям организаций, осуществляющих образовательную деятельность по образовательным программам среднего профессионального образования, применяющих норму часов учебной (преподавательской) работы 720 часов в год за ставку заработной платы, у которых по независящим от них причинам в течение учебного года учебная нагрузка уменьшается по сравнению с учебной нагрузкой, установленной на начало учебного года, либо уменьшенной по основаниям, предусмотренным пунктом 4.4 настоящего Порядка, до конца учебного года, а также в период каникул, не совпадающий с ежегодным основным удлиненным оплачиваемым отпуском и ежегодным дополнительным оплачиваемым отпуском, выплачивается заработная плата в размере, установленном в начале учебного года. V. Особенности определения учебной нагрузки педагогических работников, находящихся в отпуске по уходу за ребенком до достижения им возраста трех лет, а также лицам, замещающим должности педагогических работников на определенный срок, по совместительству либо выполняющим иную работу наряду с работой, определенной трудовым договором 5.1. Определение учебной нагрузки учителей, преподавателей, педагогов дополнительного образования, старших педагогов дополнительного образования, тренеров-преподавателей, старших тренеров-преподавателей, находящихся в отпуске по уходу за ребенком до достижения им возраста трех лет, осуществляется в соответствии с главами I–IV настоящего Порядка соответственно и распределяется на указанный период между другими педагогическими работниками. 5.2. Определение учебной нагрузки педагогических работников на определенный срок осуществляется для выполнения учебной нагрузки на период замещения временно отсутствующих педагогических работников, а также на период временного замещения вакантной должности до приема на работу постоянного работника. 5.3. Определение и изменение учебной нагрузки лиц, замещающих должности педагогических работников по совместительству, а также путем замещения таких должностей наряду с работой, �Содержание определенной трудовым договором (в том числе руководителями организаций, осуществляющих образовательную деятельность, их заместителями, другими работниками наряду со своей основной работой), осуществляется в соответствии с главами I–IV и VI настоящего Порядка. 5.4. Определение учебной нагрузки лицам, замещающим должности педагогических работников наряду с работой, определенной трудовым договором, осуществляется путем заключения дополнительного соглашения к трудовому договору, в котором указывается срок, в течение которого будет выполняться учебная (преподавательская) работа, ее содержание, объем учебной нагрузки и размер оплаты. VI. Определение учебной нагрузки педагогических работников, отнесенных к профессорскопреподавательскому составу, и основания ее изменения 6.1. Для определения учебной нагрузки педагогических работников, замещающих должности профессорско-преподавательского состава (далее – педагогические работники), ежегодно на начало учебного года по структурным подразделениям организации, осуществляющей образовательную деятельность по образовательным программам высшего образования, дополнительным профессиональным программам (далее в данной главе – организация), с учетом обеспечиваемых ими направлений подготовки локальным нормативным актом организации устанавливается средний объем учебной нагрузки, а также ее верхние пределы дифференцированно по должностям профессорскопреподавательского состава. 6.2. Учебная нагрузка каждого педагогического работника определяется в зависимости от занимаемой им должности, уровня квалификации и не может превышать верхних пределов, устанавливаемых по должностям профессорско-преподавательского состава в порядке, установленном пунктом 6.1 настоящего Порядка. 6.3. Учебная нагрузка педагогических работников включает в себя контактную работу обучающихся с преподавателем в видах учебной деятельности, установленных пунктом 54 Порядка организации и осуществления образовательной деятельности по образовательным программам высшего образования – программам бакалавриата, программам специалитета, программам магистратуры, утвержденного приказом Министерства образования и науки Российской Федерации от 19 декабря 2013 г. № 1367 (зарегистрирован Министерством юстиции Российской Федерации 24 февраля 2014 г., регистрационный № 31402) (далее – Порядок, утвержденный приказом № 1367), пунктом 7 Порядка организации и осуществления образовательной деятельности по образовательным программам высшего образования - программам ординатуры, утвержденного приказом Министерства образования и науки Российской Федерации от 19 ноября 2013 г. № 1258 (зарегистрирован Министерством юстиции Российской Федерации 28 января 2014 г., регистрационный № 31136) (далее – Порядок, утвержденный приказом № 1258), пункта 9 Порядка организации и осуществления образовательной деятельности по образовательным программам высшего образования – программам подготовки научно-педагогических кадров в аспирантуре (адъюнктуре), утвержденного приказом Министерства образования и науки Российской Федерации от 19 ноября 2013 г. № 1259 (зарегистрирован Министерством юстиции Российской Федерации 28 января 2014 г., регистрационный № 31137) (далее – Порядок, утвержденный приказом № 1259), пунктом 17 Порядка организации и осуществления образовательной деятельности по дополнительным профессиональным программам, утвержденного приказом Министерства образования и науки Российской Федерации от 1 июля 2013 г. № 499 (зарегистрирован Министерством юстиции Российской Федерации 20 августа 2013 г., регистрационный № 29444), с изменениями, внесенными приказом Министерства образования и науки Российской Федерации от 15 ноября 2013 г. № 1244 (зарегистрирован Министерством юстиции Российской Федерации 14 января 2014 г., регистрационный № 31014). 6.4. Нормы времени по видам учебной деятельности, предусмотренным пунктом 6.3 настоящего Порядка, включаемых в учебную нагрузку педагогических работников, самостоятельно определяются �Содержание организацией и утверждаются ее локальным нормативным актом. Нормы времени по видам учебной деятельности, включаемым в учебную нагрузку педагогических работников при реализации образовательных программ в области подготовки кадров в интересах обороны и безопасности государства, обеспечения законности и правопорядка в федеральных государственных организациях, находящихся в ведении федеральных государственных органов, указанных в части 1 статьи 81 Федерального закона от 29 декабря 2012 г. «Об образовании в Российской Федерации», устанавливаются локальным нормативным актом организации по согласованию с соответствующим федеральным государственным органом. За единицу времени принимается академический или астрономический час согласно установленной величине зачетной единицы, используемой при реализации образовательных программ, в соответствии с пунктом 28 Порядка, утвержденного приказом № 1367, пунктом 17 Порядка, утвержденного приказом № 1258, пунктом 18 Порядка, утвержденного приказом № 1259. 6.5. Соотношение учебной нагрузки педагогических работников, установленной на учебный год, и другой деятельности, предусмотренной должностными обязанностями и (или) индивидуальным планом (научной, творческой, исследовательской, методической, подготовительной, организационной, диагностической, лечебной, экспертной, иной, в том числе связанной с повышением своего профессионального уровня), в пределах установленной продолжительности рабочего времени, определяется локальным нормативным актом организации в зависимости от занимаемой должности работника. VII. Установление верхнего предела учебной нагрузки педагогических работников 7.1. В зависимости от занимаемой должности учебная нагрузка педагогических работников ограничивается верхним пределом в следующих случаях: 7.1.1. В организациях, осуществляющих образовательную деятельность по образовательным программам среднего профессионального образования, преподавателям, норма часов учебной (преподавательской) работы за ставку заработной платы которых составляет 720 часов в год, верхний предел учебной нагрузки устанавливается в объеме, не превышающем 1440 часов в учебном году; 7.1.2. В организациях, осуществляющих образовательную деятельность по образовательным программам высшего образования, верхний предел учебной нагрузки, определяемый по должностям профессорско-преподавательского состава в порядке, предусмотренном пунктом 6.1 настоящего Порядка, устанавливается в объеме, не превышающем 900 часов в учебном году; 7.1.3. В организациях, осуществляющих образовательную деятельность по дополнительным профессиональным программам, верхний предел учебной нагрузки, определяемый по должностям профессорско-преподавательского состава в порядке, предусмотренном пунктом 6.1 настоящего Порядка, устанавливается в объеме, не превышающем 800 часов в учебном году. 7.2. Объем учебной нагрузки при работе по совместительству у того же и (или) у другого работодателя на должностях профессорско-преподавательского состава не должен превышать половины от верхнего предела учебной нагрузки, определяемого по должностям профессорско-преподавательского состава в порядке, предусмотренном пунктом 6.1 настоящего Порядка. �Содержание Приложение 4 Утверждено приказом Министерства образования и науки Российской Федерации от 4 декабря 2014 г. № 1536 ПОЛОЖЕНИЕ О ПОРЯДКЕ ЗАМЕЩЕНИЯ ДОЛЖНОСТЕЙ НАУЧНО-ПЕДАГОГИЧЕСКИХ РАБОТНИКОВ 1. Настоящее Положение о порядке замещения должностей научно-педагогических работников (далее – Положение) определяет порядок и условия замещения должностей научно-педагогических работников (профессорско-преподавательский состав, научные работники) организаций, реализующих образовательные программы высшего образования и (или) дополнительного профессионального образования (далее соответственно – научно-педагогические работники, организации), и заключения с ними трудовых договоров на неопределенный срок или на определенный срок не более пяти лет. 2. Должности педагогических работников, отнесенные к профессорско-преподавательскому составу, указаны в пункте 1 раздела I номенклатуры должностей педагогических работников организаций, осуществляющих образовательную деятельность, должностей руководителей образовательных организаций, утвержденной постановлением Правительства Российской Федерации от 8 августа 2013 г. № 678 «Об утверждении номенклатуры должностей педагогических работников организаций, осуществляющих образовательную деятельность, должностей руководителей образовательных организаций» (Собрание законодательства Российской Федерации, 2013, № 33, ст. 4381). Должности научных работников указаны в профессиональной квалификационной группе должностей научных работников и руководителей структурных подразделений, утвержденной приказом Министерства здравоохранения и социального развития Российской Федерации от 3 июля 2008 г. № 305н «Об утверждении профессиональных квалификационных групп должностей работников сферы научных исследований и разработок» (зарегистрирован Министерством юстиции Российской Федерации 18 июля 2008 г., регистрационный № 12001), с изменением, внесенным приказом Министерства здравоохранения и социального развития от 19 декабря 2008 г. № 740н «О внесении изменения в профессиональную квалификационную группу должностей научных работников и руководителей структурных подразделений профессиональных квалификационных групп должностей работников сферы научных исследований и разработок, утвержденных приказом Министерства здравоохранения и социального развития Российской Федерации от 3 июля 2008 г. № 305н» (зарегистрирован Министерством юстиции Российской Федерации 21 января 2009 г., регистрационный № 13147). 3. Заключению трудового договора на замещение должности научно-педагогического работника, а также переводу на должность научно-педагогического работника предшествует избрание по конкурсу на замещение соответствующей должности (далее – конкурс). Часть вторая статьи 332 Трудового кодекса Российской Федерации (Собрание законодательства Российской Федерации, 2002, № 1, ст. 3; № 30, ст. 3014; ст. 3033; 2003, № 27, ст. 2700; 2004, № 18, ст. 1690; № 35, ст. 3607; 2005, № 1, ст. 27; № 13, ст. 1209; № 19, ст. 1752; 2006, № 27, ст. 2878; № 41, ст. 4285; № 52, ст. 5498; 2007, № 1, ст. 34; № 17, ст. 1930; № 30, ст. 3808; № 41, ст. 4844; № 43, ст. 5084; № 49, ст. 6070; 2008, № 9, ст. 812; № 30, ст. 3613; ст. 3616; № 52, ст. 6235, ст. 6236; 2009, № 1, ст. 17, ст. 21; № 19, ст. 2270; № 29, ст. 3604; № 30, ст. 3732, ст. 3739; № 46, ст. 5419; № 48, ст. 5717; № 50, ст. �Содержание 6146; 2010, № 31, ст. 4196; № 52, ст. 7002; 2011, № 1, ст. 49; № 25, ст. 3539; № 27, ст. 3880; № 30, ст. 4586; ст. 4590; ст. 4591; 4596; № 45, ст. 6333; ст. 6335; № 48, ст. 6730; ст. 6735; № 49, ст. 7015; ст. 7031; № 50, ст. 7359; № 52, ст. 7639; 2012, № 10, ст. 1164; № 14, ст. 1553; № 18, ст. 2127; № 31, ст. 4325; № 47, ст. 6399; № 50, ст. 6954; ст. 6959; № 53, ст. 7605; 2013, № 14, ст. 1666; ст. 1668; № 19, ст. 2322; ст. 2326; ст. 2329; № 23, ст. 2866; ст. 2883; № 27, ст. 3449; ст. 3454; ст. 3477; № 30, ст. 4037; № 48, ст. 6165; № 52, ст. 6986; 2014, № 14, ст. 1542; ст. 1547; ст. 1548; № 26, ст. 3405) (далее – Трудовой кодекс Российской Федерации). Конкурс на замещение должности научно-педагогического работника, занимаемой работником, с которым заключен трудовой договор на неопределенный срок, проводится один раз в пять лет. В целях сохранения непрерывности учебного процесса допускается заключение трудового договора на замещение должности научно-педагогического работника без избрания по конкурсу на замещение соответствующей должности при приеме на работу по совместительству или в создаваемые организации до начала работы ученого совета - на срок не более одного года, а для замещения временно отсутствующего работника, за которым в соответствии с законом сохраняется место работы, – до выхода этого работника на работу. 4. Не проводится конкурс на замещение: должностей декана факультета и заведующего кафедрой; должностей научно-педагогических работников, занимаемых беременными женщинами; должностей научно-педагогических работников, занимаемых по трудовому договору, заключенному на неопределенный срок, женщинами, имеющими детей в возрасте до трех лет. 5. Положение о порядке замещения должностей научно-педагогических работников в федеральном государственном бюджетном образовательном учреждении высшего образования «Московский государственный университет имени М.В. Ломоносова» и федеральном государственном бюджетном образовательном учреждении высшего профессионального образования «Санкт-Петербургский государственный университет» утверждается указанными организациями самостоятельно. 6. Конкурс на должности профессора и доцента среди ведущих мировых ученых проводится заочно в порядке, определяемом организацией. В конкурсе принимают участие ученые с мировым именем, имеющие приглашения для работы в организации. 7. Не позднее двух месяцев до окончания учебного года руководитель организации (уполномоченное им лицо) объявляет фамилии и должности научно-педагогических работников, у которых в следующем учебном году истекает срок трудового договора или пятилетний срок проведения конкурса на должность научно-педагогического работника (если трудовой договор заключен на неопределенный срок), путем размещения на официальном сайте организации в информационнотелекоммуникационной сети «Интернет» (далее – сайт организации). 8. Конкурс объявляется руководителем организации (уполномоченным им лицом) в средствах массовой информации и на сайте организации не менее чем за два месяца до даты его проведения. В объявлении о проведении конкурса в средствах массовой информации указывается ссылка на сайт организации, содержащий информацию о конкурсе, на котором также размещается настоящее Положение. В объявлении о проведении конкурса на сайте организации указывается: перечень должностей научно-педагогических работников, на замещение которых объявляется конкурс; �Содержание квалификационные требования по должностям научно-педагогических работников; место (адрес) и окончательная дата (не ранее 10 календарных дней до проведения конкурса) приема заявления для участия в конкурсе; место и дата проведения конкурса. В организации должны быть созданы условия для ознакомления всех работников с информацией о проведении конкурса. 9. Заявление претендента для участия в конкурсе должно поступить в организацию не позднее окончательной даты приема заявления, указанной в объявлении о проведении конкурса. К заявлению должны быть приложены копии документов, подтверждающих соответствие претендента квалификационным требованиям, и документы, подтверждающие отсутствие у него ограничений на занятие трудовой деятельностью в сфере образования, предусмотренных законодательными и иными нормативными правовыми актами. Претендент не допускается к конкурсу в случае: несоответствия представленных документов требованиям, предъявляемым по соответствующей должности; непредставления установленных документов; нарушения установленных сроков поступления заявления. 10. Для проведения конкурса на замещение должностей научно-педагогических работников организация определяет коллегиальный орган управления (далее - орган управления), в состав которого входят при наличии представители первичной профсоюзной организации работников. 11. Орган управления вправе предложить претенденту провести пробные лекции или другие учебные занятия, претендентам на научные должности – выступить с сообщением по предлагаемой тематике научных исследований. 12. Претендент имеет право ознакомиться с условиями предлагаемого к заключению трудового договора, коллективным договором организации и присутствовать при рассмотрении его кандидатуры. Неявка претендента не является препятствием для проведения конкурса. 13. Решение по конкурсу принимается органом управления путем тайного голосования и оформляется протоколом. Прошедшим избрание по конкурсу считается претендент, получивший путем тайного голосования более половины голосов членов органа управления от числа принявших участие в голосовании при кворуме не менее 2/3 списочного состава органа управления. Если голосование проводилось по единственному претенденту и он не набрал необходимого количества голосов, конкурс признается несостоявшимся. Если голосование проводилось по двум и более претендентам и никто из них не набрал необходимого количества голосов, то проводится второй тур избрания, при котором повторное тайное голосование проводится по двум претендентам, получившим наибольшее количество голосов в первом туре избрания. �Содержание В случае, когда при повторном тайном голосовании никто из претендентов не набрал более половины голосов, конкурс признается несостоявшимся. 14. Если на конкурс не подано ни одного заявления, он признается несостоявшимся. 15. С лицом, успешно прошедшим конкурс на замещение должности научно-педагогического работника, заключается трудовой договор в порядке, определенном трудовым законодательством. Трудовые договоры на замещение должностей научно-педагогических работников могут заключаться как на неопределенный срок, так и на определенный срок не более пяти лет. При избрании работника по конкурсу на замещение ранее занимаемой им по срочному трудовому договору должности научно-педагогического работника новый трудовой договор может не заключаться. В этом случае действие срочного трудового договора с работником продлевается по соглашению сторон, заключаемому в письменной форме, на определенный срок не более пяти лет или на неопределенный срок При переводе на должность научно-педагогического работника в результате избрания по конкурсу на соответствующую должность срок действия трудового договора с работником может быть изменен по соглашению сторон, заключаемому в письменной форме, на определенный срок не более пяти лет или на неопределенный срок 16. Конкурс на вакантные должности не проводится при переводе научно-педагогического работника с его согласия в связи с реорганизацией организации или ее структурного подразделения и (или) сокращением численности (штата) на должность аналогичную или нижестоящую по отношению к занимаемой им должности в том же структурном подразделении или при переводе в другое структурное подразделение до окончания срока трудового договора. 17. Должность научно-педагогического работника объявляется вакантной, если в течение тридцати календарных дней со дня принятия соответствующего решения органом управления лицо, впервые успешно прошедшее конкурс на замещение данной должности в организации, не заключило трудовой договор по собственной инициативе. �Содержание Приложение 5 ИНСТРУКЦИЯ ПО ОХРАНЕ ТРУДА ДЛЯ ПЕДАГОГИЧЕСКИХ РАБОТНИКОВ (НАУЧНОПЕДАГОГИЧЕСКИХ РАБОТНИКОВ) СТРУКТУРНЫХ ПОДРАЗДЕЛЕНИЙ ФГАОУ ВПО «КАЗАНСКИЙ (ПРИВОЛЖСКИЙ) ФЕДЕРАЛЬНЫЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ» 1. Общие требования охраны труда 1.1. Настоящая инструкция устанавливает требования охраны труда при выполнении должностных обязанностей педагогическим (научно-педагогическим) работником структурных подразделений ФГАОУ ВПО «Казанский (Приволжский) федеральный университет» (далее – педагогический работник) на рабочем месте. 1.2. К работе педагогическим работником допускается лицо, прошедшее: - вводный инструктаж по охране труда, пожаро- и электробезопасности; - первичный инструктаж на рабочем месте; - повторный в процессе работы (1 раз в 6 мес.), внеплановый, целевой инструктажи по охране труда. Педагогический работник должен проходить предварительный (при поступлении на работу) и периодические медицинские осмотры. К работе допускаются лица, не имеющие медицинских противопоказаний. 1.3. Педагогический работник обязан: - знать и соблюдать Трудовой кодекс РФ, Федеральный закон «Об образовании в Российской Федерации», санитарные правила и нормы (при работе с компьютером, при работе с копировальномножительной техникой и др.); - соблюдать Устав КФУ, Правила внутреннего трудового распорядка, приказы, распоряжения ректора и руководителей структурных подразделений, инструкции по охране труда и другие нормативноправовые документы по безопасности образовательного процесса; - проходить обучение безопасным методам и приемам выполнения работ в течение первого месяца работы, проверку знаний требований охраны труда не реже 1 раза в три года; - разрабатывать инструкции по охране труда по каждому виду работ (пересматривать 1 раз в 5 лет); - проводить инструктажи по охране труда с обучающимися с оформлением их в контрольных листах или журнале соответствующей формы (1 раз в 6 месяцев или по необходимости); - выполнять правила безопасной эксплуатации при работе с электрооборудованием, изложенные в инструкциях к оборудованию; - выполнять требования пожаротушения; пожарной безопасности, уметь применять первичные средства �Содержание - уметь оказывать первую помощь при ожогах, отравлениях, поражениях электрическим током и других травмах, и действовать согласно инструкции по оказанию первой помощи при несчастных случаях для студентов и работников КФУ; 1.4. При работе на педагогического работника могут воздействовать следующие опасные и вредные производственные факторы: - физические факторы (ионизирующее излучение, неионизирующее излучение, недостаточная освещенность рабочей зоны и др.); - химические факторы (воздействие химических веществ); - биологические факторы (ферментные препараты, микроорганизмы (растения, животные) и др.); - психофизиологические факторы (умственное перенапряжение голосового аппарата и др.); перенапряжение, эмоциональные перегрузки, 1.5. Педагогический работник, занятый на работах с вредными условиями труда, должен быть обеспечен спецодеждой и средствами индивидуальной защиты в соответствии с действующими нормативами. 1.6. Не допускать проведение учебных занятий в непредназначенных для этих целей помещениях. 1.7. Педагогический работник должен исключить нахождение в помещении для занятий любых предметов, не применяемых во время учебного процесса, которые могут отрицательно сказаться на здоровье обучающихся. 1.8. Внешний вид педагогических работников должен соответствовать общепринятым в деловом мире нормам и правилам. Одежда педагогического работника должна быть выдержана в строгом, деловом стиле, поддерживающем имидж КФУ. Обувь не должна быть на чрезмерно высоком каблуке (не более 5 см). 1.9. Своим внешним видом и поступками педагогический работник должен укреплять дисциплину обучающихся, пропагандировать соблюдение корпоративного стиля и этики всех участников образовательного процесса вне зависимости от должности, вида деятельности, материального и социального положения. 1.10. Педагогический работник может вносить предложения по улучшению и оздоровлению условий труда и по проведению образовательного процесса для включения их в коллективный договор, соглашение по охране труда, в план мероприятий по улучшению условий труда. 2. Требования охраны труда перед началом работы 2.1. За 10–15 минут до начала занятий: - проверить соответствие рабочих мест для обучающихся нормам охраны труда, требованиям безопасности и санитарии; - при использовании электрооборудования, инструментов, приспособлений проверить их исправность внешним осмотром, наличие защитных средств, отсутствие травмоопасных признаков; �Содержание - внешним осмотром проверить корпуса и крышки электрических выключателей, розеток на отсутствие сколов и трещин, а также оголенных контактов проводов. 2.2. В случае неисправности приборов, оборудования, инвентаря запретить его эксплуатацию, не пытаться самостоятельно устранить неисправность, не приступать к работе (занятию) до исправления неполадок квалифицированными специалистами (электриком, инженером и др.). 2.3. Поставить в известность заведующего кафедрой (отделения) или соответствующие должностное лицо кафедры (отделения) о причинах задержки, отмены занятий. 2.4. При проведении лабораторных, научных или практических работ с использованием химических, биологических веществ, специальных приборов и оборудования, при проведении спортивных занятий не допускать до занятий обучающихся, не прошедших инструктаж по технике безопасности при работе с используемыми в работе веществами (кислотами, щелочами и др.), специальным оборудованием и инструментом; без средств индивидуальной защиты (где это необходимо); без медицинской справки о состоянии здоровья. 2.5. Проверить наличие допуска к использованию учебного оборудования, спортивного инвентаря (оформленные акты) в работе с обучающимися. 2.6. При необходимости надеть спецодежду и другие средства индивидуальной защиты. 3. Требования охраны труда во время работы 3.1. Педагогический работник должен контролировать обстановку во время занятий и обеспечить безопасное проведение образовательного процесса. 3.2. Во время занятий должна выполняться только та работа, которая предусмотрена расписанием и планом занятий. 3.3. Количество обучающихся, одновременно выполняющих свои работы в помещениях (лабораториях, спортивных комплексах), не должно превышать число рабочих мест. Каждый должен работать на закреплённом за ним рабочем месте. 3.4. Все работы должны проводиться в соответствии с безопасными методиками и правилами безопасной работы. 3.5. Запрещается оставлять обучающихся во время проведения занятий без педагогического работника. 4. Требования охраны труда в аварийных ситуациях 4.1. Аварийными ситуациями являются: - выход из строя системы отопления и водоснабжения, электроснабжения, вентиляции и др.; - возникновение стихийных бедствий, пожара; - выход из строя электрооборудования, утечка опасных и вредных химических веществ, распространение вредных биологических факторов и др. �Содержание 4.2. При возникновении пожара необходимо прекратить занятия, вызвать пожарную охрану, отключить оборудование от электросети, оповестить о пожаре находящихся поблизости людей, принять меры к эвакуации людей из опасной зоны и принять участие в тушении пожара имеющимися первичными средствами пожаротушения, а при невозможности ликвидировать пожар покинуть опасную зону, действуя согласно инструкциям по пожарной безопасности и планам эвакуации. 4.5. При прочих аварийных ситуациях (поломка систем водоснабжения, канализации, отопления, вентиляции и др.), препятствующих проведению занятий, прекратить занятия и сообщить об этом вышестоящему руководителю. Вывести обучающихся из опасной зоны (при необходимости). Принять участие в ликвидации создавшейся аварийной ситуации, если это не представляет угрозы для здоровья или жизни. Не приступать к работе до полного устранения аварийной ситуации. 4.6. При несчастных случаях (травмировании, отравлении, ожогах, поражении током, внезапном заболевании и т. д.) оказать пострадавшему первую помощь, при необходимости вызвать скорую помощь на место происшествия. 4.7. Немедленно сообщить своему непосредственному руководителю и в отдел охраны труда по телефону 292-74-80 о происшедшем несчастном случае. 5. Требования охраны труда по окончании работы 5.1. После занятия внимательно осмотреть помещение. Убедиться, что все обучающиеся привели в порядок рабочие места и покинули аудиторию (лабораторию, спортзал). 5.2. Привести в порядок своё рабочее место. Убрать применяемые в работе химические вещества, биологический материал, приборы и т.д. в установленное место. 5.3. Отключить оборудование от источников питания. 5.4. Если при проведении занятий в течение дня педагогический работник заметил какие-либо нарушения по охране труда, обязательно сообщить о них заведующему кафедрой (отделением). 5.6. Закрыть окна, форточки, выключить свет, закрыть помещение и сдать ключи на вахту. Контроль и ответственность за выполнение данной инструкции возлагается на педагогического работника и руководителя структурного подразделения. Педагогические работники несут персональную ответственность за жизнь и здоровье обучающихся во время учебно-воспитательного процесса. Нарушение требований данной инструкции рассматривается как нарушение трудовой дисциплины и влечет за собой, в зависимости от нарушений, дисциплинарную, административную и уголовную ответственность в соответствии с действующим законодательством РФ. Инструкцию разработал отдел охраны труда �Содержание МИНИСТЕРСТВО ТРУДА И СОЦИАЛЬНОЙ ЗАЩИТЫ РОССИЙСКОЙ ФЕДЕРАЦИИ ПРИКАЗ от 19 августа 2016 г. № 438н ОБ УТВЕРЖДЕНИИ ТИПОВОГО ПОЛОЖЕНИЯ О СИСТЕМЕ УПРАВЛЕНИЯ ОХРАНОЙ ТРУДА В соответствии со статьей 209 Трудового кодекса Российской Федерации (Собрание законодательства Российской Федерации, 2002, № 1, ст. 3; 2006, № 27, ст. 2878; 2008, № 30, ст. 3616; 2011, № 27, ст. 3880; № 30, ст. 4590; 2013, № 52, ст. 6986) и подпунктом 5.2.16(6) пункта 5.2 Положения о Министерстве труда и социальной защиты Российской Федерации, утвержденного постановлением Правительства Российской Федерации от 19 июня 2012 г. № 610 (Собрание законодательства Российской Федерации, 2012, № 26, ст. 3528; 2014, № 32, ст. 4499), приказываю: Утвердить прилагаемое Типовое положение о системе управления охраной труда. Врио Министра А.В. ВОВЧЕНКО Утверждено приказом Министерства труда и социальной защиты Российской Федерации от 19 августа 2016 г. № 438н ТИПОВОЕ ПОЛОЖЕНИЕ О СИСТЕМЕ УПРАВЛЕНИЯ ОХРАНОЙ ТРУДА I. Общие положения 1. Настоящее Типовое положение о системе управления охраной труда разработано в целях оказания содействия работодателям при создании и обеспечении функционирования системы управления охраной труда (далее – СУОТ), разработки положения о СУОТ, содержит типовую структуру и основные положения о СУОТ. 2. Создание и обеспечение функционирования СУОТ осуществляется работодателем посредством соблюдения государственных нормативных требований охраны труда <1> с учетом специфики своей деятельности, достижений современной науки и наилучшей практики, принятых на себя обязательств и на основе международных, межгосударственных и национальных стандартов, руководств, а также рекомендаций Международной организации труда по СУОТ и безопасности производства. 3. СУОТ должна быть совместимой с другими системами управления, действующими у работодателя. Структура СУОТ у работодателей, численность работников которых составляет менее 15 человек, может быть упрощенной при условии соблюдения государственных нормативных требований охраны труда <1>. Упрощение осуществляется с учетом специфики деятельности работодателя путем сокращения предусмотренных пунктом 19 настоящего Типового положения уровней управления между работником и работодателем в целом с установлением обязанностей в соответствии с пунктами 22 и 25 настоящего Типового положения. -------------------------------<1> Согласно статье 209 Трудового кодекса Российской Федерации (Собрание законодательства Российской Федерации, 2002, № 1, ст. 3; 2006, № 27, ст. 2878; 2008, № 30, ст. 3616; 2011, № 27, ст. 3880; № 30, ст. 4590; 2013, № 52, ст. 6986) под требованиями охраны труда понимаются государственные нормативные требования охраны труда, в том числе стандарты безопасности труда, а также требования охраны труда, установленные правилами и инструкциями по охране труда. �Содержание В соответствии со статьей 211 Трудового кодекса Российской Федерации государственными нормативными требованиями охраны труда, содержащимися в федеральных законах и иных нормативных правовых актах Российской Федерации и законах и иных нормативных правовых актах субъектов Российской Федерации, устанавливаются правила, процедуры, критерии и нормативы, направленные на сохранение жизни и здоровья работников в процессе трудовой деятельности. 4. СУОТ представляет собой единство: а) организационных структур управления работодателя с фиксированными обязанностями его должностных лиц; б) процедур и порядков функционирования СУОТ, включая планирование и реализацию мероприятий по улучшению условий труда и организации работ по охране труда; в) устанавливающей (локальные нормативные акты работодателя) и фиксирующей (журналы, акты, записи) документации. 5. Действие СУОТ распространяется на всей территории, во всех зданиях и сооружениях работодателя. 6. Требования СУОТ обязательны для всех работников, работающих у работодателя, и являются обязательными для всех лиц, находящихся на территории, в зданиях и сооружениях работодателя. 7. Основой организации и функционирования СУОТ является положение о СУОТ, разрабатываемое работодателем самостоятельно или с привлечением сторонних организаций и специалистов. Положение о СУОТ утверждается приказом работодателя с учетом мнения работников и (или) уполномоченных ими представительных органов (при наличии). 8. В положение о СУОТ с учетом специфики деятельности работодателя включаются следующие разделы (подразделы): а) политика работодателя в области охраны труда; б) цели работодателя в области охраны труда; в) обеспечение функционирования СУОТ (распределение обязанностей в сфере охраны труда между должностными лицами работодателя); г) процедуры, направленные на достижение целей работодателя в области охраны труда (далее процедуры), включая: процедуру подготовки работников по охране труда; процедуру организации и проведения оценки условий труда; процедуру управления профессиональными рисками; процедуру организации и проведения наблюдения за состоянием здоровья работников; процедуру информирования работников об условиях труда на их рабочих местах, уровнях профессиональных рисков, а также о предоставляемых им гарантиях, полагающихся компенсациях; процедуру обеспечения оптимальных режимов труда и отдыха работников; процедуру обеспечения работников средствами смывающими и обезвреживающими средствами; индивидуальной и коллективной защиты, процедуру обеспечения работников молоком и другими равноценными пищевыми продуктами, лечебно-профилактическим питанием; �Содержание процедуры обеспечения безопасного выполнения подрядных работ и снабжения безопасной продукцией; д) планирование мероприятий по реализации процедур; е) контроль функционирования СУОТ и мониторинг реализации процедур; ж) планирование улучшений функционирования СУОТ; з) реагирование на аварии, несчастные случаи и профессиональные заболевания; и) управление документами СУОТ. II. Политика работодателя в области охраны труда 9. Политика работодателя в области охраны труда (далее – Политика по охране труда) является публичной документированной декларацией работодателя о намерении и гарантированном выполнении им обязанностей по соблюдению государственных нормативных требований охраны труда и добровольно принятых на себя обязательств. 10. Политика по охране труда обеспечивает: а) приоритет сохранения жизни и здоровья работников в процессе их трудовой деятельности; б) соответствие условий труда на рабочих местах требованиям охраны труда; в) выполнение последовательных и непрерывных мер (мероприятий) по предупреждению происшествий и случаев ухудшения состояния здоровья работников, производственного травматизма и профессиональных заболеваний, в том числе посредством управления профессиональными рисками; г) учет индивидуальных особенностей работников, в том числе посредством проектирования рабочих мест, выбора оборудования, инструментов, сырья и материалов, средств индивидуальной и коллективной защиты, построения производственных и технологических процессов; д) непрерывное совершенствование и повышение эффективности СУОТ; е) обязательное привлечение работников, уполномоченных ими представительных органов к участию в управлении охраной труда и обеспечении условий труда, соответствующих требованиям охраны труда, посредством необходимого ресурсного обеспечения и поощрения такого участия; ж) личную заинтересованность в обеспечении, насколько это возможно, безопасных условий труда; з) выполнение иных обязанностей в области охраны труда исходя из специфики своей деятельности. 11. В Политике по охране труда отражаются: а) положения о соответствии условий труда на рабочих местах работодателя требованиям охраны труда; б) обязательства работодателя по предотвращению травматизма и ухудшения здоровья работников; в) положения об учете специфики деятельности работодателя и вида (видов) осуществляемой им экономической деятельности, обусловливающих уровень профессиональных рисков работников; г) порядок совершенствования функционирования СУОТ. 12. При определении Политики по охране труда работодатель обеспечивает совместно с работниками и (или) уполномоченными ими представительными органами предварительный анализ состояния �Содержание охраны труда у работодателя и обсуждение Политики по охране труда. 13. Политика по охране труда должна быть доступна всем работникам, работающим у работодателя, а также иным лицам, находящимся на территории, в зданиях и сооружениях работодателя. III. Цели работодателя в области охраны труда 14. Основные цели работодателя в области охраны труда (далее – цели) содержатся в Политике по охране труда и достигаются путем реализации работодателем процедур, предусмотренных разделом V настоящего Типового положения. 15. Количество целей определяется спецификой деятельности работодателя. 16. Цели формулируются с учетом необходимости оценки их достижения, в том числе, по возможности, на основе измеримых показателей. IV. Обеспечение функционирования СУОТ (распределение обязанностей в сфере охраны труда между должностными лицами работодателя) 17. Распределение обязанностей <1> в сфере охраны труда между должностными лицами работодателя осуществляется работодателем с использованием уровней управления. -------------------------------<1> Обязанности работодателя и его должностных лиц сформулированы в настоящем Типовом положении на основании требований статей 15, 76, 212, 213, 217, 218, 221–223, 225–229.2, 370 Трудового кодекса Российской Федерации, а работника – в соответствии с требованиями статей 21 и 214 Трудового кодекса Российской Федерации. 18. Организация работ по охране труда у работодателя, выполнение его обязанностей возлагается непосредственно на самого работодателя в случае, если работодатель является индивидуальным предпринимателем, руководителей структурных подразделений и иных структурных единиц работодателя, службу охраны труда, штатных специалистов по охране труда, организацию или специалиста, оказывающих услуги в области охраны труда, привлекаемых работодателем по гражданско-правовому договору. 19. В качестве уровней управления могут рассматриваться: а) уровень производственной бригады; б) уровень производственного участка; в) уровень производственного цеха (структурного подразделения); г) уровень филиала (обособленного структурного подразделения); д) уровень службы (совокупности нескольких структурных подразделений); е) уровень работодателя в целом. 20. С учетом специфики деятельности работодателя, структуры управления и численности работников для целей СУОТ могут устанавливаться и иные уровни управления. 21. Обязанности в сфере охраны труда должностных лиц работодателя устанавливаются в зависимости от уровня управления. При этом на каждом уровне управления устанавливаются обязанности в сфере охраны труда персонально для каждого руководителя или принимающего участие в управлении работника. �Содержание 22. На уровнях управления, указанных в подпунктах «а» и «б» пункта 19 настоящего Типового положения, устанавливаются обязанности в сфере охраны труда: а) непосредственно работников; б) руководителей трудовых коллективов (бригадира, мастера); в) руководителей производственных участков, их заместителей; г) руководителей производственных цехов (структурных подразделений), их заместителей; д) специалистов по охране труда структурных подразделений (должностных лиц, на которых возложено исполнение функций специалиста по охране труда). 23. На уровне управления, указанном в подпункте «в» пункта 19 настоящего Типового положения, устанавливаются обязанности в сфере охраны труда: а) руководителей производственных участков, их заместителей; б) руководителей производственных цехов (структурных подразделений), их заместителей; в) специалистов по охране труда структурных подразделений (должностных лиц, на которых возложено исполнение функций специалиста по охране труда). 24. На уровне управления, указанном в подпункте «г» пункта 19 настоящего Типового положения, устанавливаются обязанности в сфере охраны труда: а) руководителей служб и структурных подразделений филиала, их заместителей; б) руководителей производственных участков структурных подразделений филиала, их заместителей. 25. На уровнях управления, указанных в подпунктах «д» и «е» пункта 19 настоящего Типового положения, устанавливаются обязанности в сфере охраны труда: а) непосредственно самого работодателя, его представителей или назначенного им единоличного исполнительного органа; б) заместителей руководителя организации по направлениям производственной деятельности; в) заместителя руководителя, ответственного за организацию работ по охране труда. 26. На каждом уровне управления устанавливаются обязанности в сфере охраны труда службы охраны труда, штатных специалистов по охране труда, организации или специалиста, оказывающих услуги в области охраны труда, привлекаемых работодателем по гражданско-правовому договору, или работодателя - индивидуального предпринимателя (лично), руководителя организации, другого уполномоченного работодателем работника, осуществляющих функции службы охраны труда, штатных специалистов по охране труда (далее – служба (специалист) охраны труда). В случае привлечения по гражданско-правовому договору организации или специалиста, оказывающих услуги в области охраны труда, для осуществления функций службы (специалиста) охраны труда работодатель должен информировать такие организацию или специалиста о тех факторах, которые влияют (или могут влиять) на безопасность и здоровье работников. 27. Управление охраной труда должно осуществляться при непосредственном участии работников и (или) уполномоченных ими представительных органов, в том числе в рамках деятельности комитета (комиссии) по охране труда работодателя (при наличии). �Содержание 28. Распределение обязанностей в сфере охраны труда закрепляется либо в разделе «Обеспечение функционирования СУОТ» положения о СУОТ, либо в отдельных локальных нормативных актах, планах мероприятий, а также в трудовых договорах и (или) должностных инструкциях лиц, участвующих в управлении охраной труда. 29. В качестве обязанностей в сфере охраны труда могут устанавливаться следующие: а) работодатель самостоятельно <1>: -------------------------------<1> В соответствии с требованиями статей 15, 76, 212, 213, 217, 218, 221–223, 225–229.2, 370 Трудового кодекса Российской Федерации. гарантирует права работников на охрану труда, включая обеспечение условий труда, соответствующих требованиям охраны труда; обеспечивает соблюдение режима труда и отдыха работников; обеспечивает своевременное страхование работников от несчастных случаев на производстве и профессиональных заболеваний, профессиональных рисков; организовывает ресурсное обеспечение мероприятий по охране труда; организует безопасную эксплуатацию производственных зданий, сооружений, оборудования, безопасность технологических процессов и используемых в производстве сырья и материалов; принимает меры по предотвращению аварий, сохранению жизни и здоровья работников и иных лиц при возникновении таких ситуаций, в том числе меры по оказанию пострадавшим первой помощи; обеспечивает создание и функционирование СУОТ; руководит разработкой организационно-распорядительных документов и распределяет обязанности в сфере охраны труда между своими заместителями, руководителями структурных подразделений и службой (специалистом) охраны труда; определяет ответственность своих заместителей, руководителей структурных подразделений и службы (специалиста) охраны труда за деятельность в области охраны труда; обеспечивает комплектование службы охраны труда квалифицированными специалистами; организует в соответствии с Трудовым кодексом Российской Федерации проведение за счет собственных средств обязательных предварительных (при поступлении на работу) и периодических (в течение трудовой деятельности) медицинских осмотров, психиатрических освидетельствований, химико-токсикологических исследований работников (при необходимости); обеспечивает соблюдение установленного порядка <1> обучения и профессиональной подготовки работников, включая подготовку по охране труда, с учетом необходимости поддержания необходимого уровня компетентности для выполнения служебных обязанностей, относящихся к обеспечению охраны труда; -------------------------------<1> Утвержден постановлением Министерства труда и социального развития Российской Федерации и Министерства образования Российской Федерации от 13 января 2003 г. № 1/29 «Об утверждении порядка обучения по охране труда и проверки знаний требований охраны труда работников организаций» (зарегистрирован Министерством юстиции Российской Федерации 12 февраля 2003 г., регистрационный № 4209). �Содержание допускает к самостоятельной работе лиц, удовлетворяющих соответствующим квалификационным требованиям и не имеющих медицинских противопоказаний к указанной работе; обеспечивает приобретение и выдачу за счет собственных средств специальной одежды, специальной обуви и других средств индивидуальной защиты, смывающих и обезвреживающих средств в соответствии с условиями труда и согласно типовым нормам их выдачи; обеспечивает приобретение и функционирование средств коллективной защиты; организует проведение специальной оценки условий труда; организует управление профессиональными рисками; организует и проводит контроль за состоянием условий и охраны труда; содействует работе комитета представительных органов; (комиссии) по охране труда, уполномоченных работниками осуществляет информирование работников об условиях труда на их рабочих местах, уровнях профессиональных рисков, а также о предоставляемых им гарантиях, полагающихся компенсациях; обеспечивает лечебно-профилактическим питанием, молоком соответствующий работников в соответствии с условиями труда и согласно установленным нормам <1>; контингент -------------------------------<1> Утверждены приказом Министерства здравоохранения и социального развития Российской Федерации от 16 февраля 2009 г. № 45н «Об утверждении норм и условий бесплатной выдачи работникам, занятым на работах с вредными условиями труда, молока или других равноценных пищевых продуктов, порядка осуществления компенсационной выплаты в размере, эквивалентном стоимости молока или других равноценных пищевых продуктов, и перечня вредных производственных факторов, при воздействии которых в профилактических целях рекомендуется употребление молока или других равноценных пищевых продуктов» (зарегистрирован Министерством юстиции Российской Федерации 20 апреля 2009 г., регистрационный № 13795) с изменениями, внесенными приказом Министерства здравоохранения и социального развития Российской Федерации от 19 апреля 2010 г. № 245н (зарегистрирован Министерством юстиции Российской Федерации 13 мая 2010 г., регистрационный № 17201) и приказом Министерства труда и социальной защиты Российской Федерации от 20 февраля 2014 г. № 103н (зарегистрирован Министерством юстиции Российской Федерации 15 мая 2014 г., регистрационный № 32284); приказом Министерства здравоохранения и социального развития Российской Федерации от 16 февраля 2009 г. № 46н «Об утверждении перечня производств, профессий и должностей, работа в которых дает право на бесплатное получение лечебнопрофилактического питания в связи с особо вредными условиями труда, рационов лечебно-профилактического питания, норм бесплатной выдачи витаминных препаратов и правил бесплатной выдачи лечебно-профилактического питания» (зарегистрирован Министерством юстиции Российской Федерации 20 апреля 2009 г., регистрационный № 13796). обеспечивает санитарно-бытовое обслуживание соответствии с требованиями охраны труда; и медицинское обеспечение работников в принимает участие в расследовании причин аварий, несчастных случаев и профессиональных заболеваний, принимает меры по устранению указанных причин, по их предупреждению и профилактике; своевременно информирует органы государственной власти о происшедших авариях, несчастных случаях и профессиональных заболеваниях; организует исполнение указаний и предписаний органов государственной власти, выдаваемых ими по результатам контрольно-надзорной деятельности; по представлению уполномоченных представителей органов государственной власти отстраняет от �Содержание работы лиц, допустивших неоднократные нарушения требований охраны труда; б) работодатель через своих заместителей, руководителей структурных подразделений <1>: -------------------------------<1> В соответствии с требованиями статей 212 и 370 Трудового кодекса Российской Федерации. обеспечивает наличие и функционирование необходимых приборов и систем контроля за производственными процессами; приостанавливает работы в случаях, установленных требованиями охраны труда; обеспечивает доступность документов и информации, содержащих требования охраны труда, действующие у работодателя, для ознакомления с ними работников и иных лиц; в) работник <1>: -------------------------------<1> В соответствии с требованиями статей 21 и 214 Трудового кодекса Российской Федерации. обеспечивает соблюдение требований охраны труда в рамках выполнения своих трудовых функций, включая выполнение требований инструкций по охране труда, правил внутреннего трудового распорядка, а также соблюдение производственной, технологической и трудовой дисциплины, выполнение указаний руководителя работ; проходит медицинские осмотры, психиатрические освидетельствования, химико-токсикологические исследования по направлению работодателя; проходит подготовку по охране труда, а также по вопросам оказания первой помощи пострадавшим в результате аварий и несчастных случаев на производстве; участвует в контроле за состоянием условий и охраны труда; содержит в чистоте свое рабочее место; перед началом рабочей смены (рабочего дня) проводит осмотр своего рабочего места; следит за исправностью оборудования и инструментов на своем рабочем месте; проверяет в отношении своего рабочего места наличие и исправность ограждений, предохранительных приспособлений, блокировочных и сигнализирующих устройств, средств индивидуальной и групповой защиты, состояние проходов, переходов, площадок, лестничных устройств, перил, а также отсутствие их захламленности и загроможденности; о выявленных при осмотре своего рабочего места недостатках докладывает своему непосредственному руководителю и действует по его указанию; правильно использует средства индивидуальной и коллективной защиты и приспособления, обеспечивающие безопасность труда; извещает своего непосредственного или вышестоящего руководителя о любой ситуации, угрожающей жизни и здоровью людей, о каждом несчастном случае или об ухудшении состояния своего здоровья, в том числе о проявлении признаков острого профессионального заболевания (отравления), или иных лиц; �Содержание при возникновении аварий действует в соответствии с ранее утвержденным работодателем порядком действий в случае их возникновения и принимает необходимые меры по ограничению развития возникшей аварии и ее ликвидации; принимает меры по оказанию первой помощи пострадавшим на производстве; г) служба (специалист) охраны труда <1>: -------------------------------<1> В соответствии с требованиями статей 212 и 217 Трудового кодекса Российской Федерации. обеспечивает функционирование СУОТ; осуществляет руководство организационной работой по охране труда у работодателя, координирует работу структурных подразделений работодателя; организует размещение в доступных местах наглядных пособий и современных технических средств для проведения подготовки по охране труда; осуществляет контроль за обеспечением работников в соответствии с Трудовым кодексом Российской Федерации нормативной правовой и методической документацией в области охраны труда; контролирует соблюдение требований охраны труда у работодателя, трудового законодательства в части охраны труда, режимов труда и отдыха работников, указаний и предписаний органов государственной власти по результатам контрольно-надзорных мероприятий; осуществляет контроль за состоянием условий и охраны труда; организует разработку структурными подразделениями работодателя мероприятий по улучшению условий и охраны труда, контролирует их выполнение; осуществляет оперативную и консультативную связь с органами государственной власти по вопросам охраны труда; участвует в разработке и пересмотре локальных актов по охране труда; участвует в организации и проведении подготовки по охране труда; контролирует обеспечение, выдачу, хранение и использование коллективной защиты, их исправность и правильное применение; средств индивидуальной и рассматривает и вносит предложения по пересмотру норм выдачи специальной одежды и других средств индивидуальной защиты, смывающих и обезвреживающих веществ, молока, лечебнопрофилактического питания, продолжительности рабочего времени, а также размера повышения оплаты труда и продолжительности дополнительного отпуска по результатам специальной оценки условий труда; участвует в организации и проведении специальной оценки условий труда; участвует в управлении профессиональными рисками; организует и проводит проверки состояния охраны труда в структурных подразделениях работодателя; организует проведение медицинских осмотров, психиатрических освидетельствований, химикотоксикологических исследований работников; �Содержание дает указания (предписания) об устранении имеющихся недостатков и нарушений требований охраны труда, контролирует их выполнение; участвует в расследовании аварий, несчастных случаев и профессиональных заболеваний, ведет учет и отчетность по ним, анализирует их причины, намечает и осуществляет мероприятия по предупреждению повторения аналогичных случаев, контролирует их выполнение; д) руководитель структурного подразделения работодателя <1>: -------------------------------<1> В соответствии с требованиями статей 212, 213, 218, 221–223, 225, 227-229.2 Трудового кодекса Российской Федерации. обеспечивает условия труда, соответствующие требованиям подразделении работодателя; охраны труда, в структурном обеспечивает функционирование СУОТ; несет ответственность за ненадлежащее выполнение возложенных на него обязанностей в сфере охраны труда; распределяет обязанности в сфере охраны труда между своими подчиненными, в том числе делегирует им часть своих полномочий, определяет степень их ответственности; содействует работе комитета представительных органов; (комиссии) по охране труда, уполномоченных работниками обеспечивает своевременное проведение за счет средств работодателя обязательных предварительных (при поступлении на работу) и периодических (в течение трудовой деятельности) медицинских осмотров, психиатрических освидетельствований, химико-токсикологических исследований работников структурного подразделения; обеспечивает допуск к самостоятельной работе лиц, удовлетворяющих соответствующим квалификационным требованиям и не имеющих медицинских противопоказаний к указанной работе; организует проведение подготовки по охране труда; организует выдачу специальной одежды, специальной обуви и других средств индивидуальной защиты, смывающих и обезвреживающих средств; организует обеспечение лечебно-профилактическим контингента работников структурного подразделения; питанием, молоком соответствующего обеспечивает санитарно-бытовое обслуживание и медицинское обеспечение работников структурного подразделения в соответствии с требованиями охраны труда; организует в структурном подразделении безопасность эксплуатации производственных зданий, сооружений, оборудования, безопасность технологических процессов и используемых в производстве сырья и материалов; участвует в организации проведения специальной оценки условий труда; участвует в организации управления профессиональными рисками; участвует в организации и проведении контроля за состоянием условий и охраны труда в структурном �Содержание подразделении; принимает меры по предотвращению аварий в структурном подразделении, сохранению жизни и здоровья работников структурного подразделения и иных лиц при возникновении таких ситуаций, в том числе меры по оказанию пострадавшим в результате аварии первой помощи; принимает участие в расследовании причин аварий, несчастных случаев, происшедших в структурном подразделении, и профессиональных заболеваний работников структурного подразделения, принимает меры по устранению указанных причин, по их предупреждению и профилактике; своевременно информирует работодателя об авариях, несчастных случаях, происшедших в структурном подразделении, и профессиональных заболеваниях работников структурного подразделения; обеспечивает исполнение указаний и предписаний органов государственной власти, выдаваемых ими по результатам контрольно-надзорной деятельности, указаний (предписаний) службы (специалиста) охраны труда; обеспечивает наличие и функционирование в структурном подразделении необходимых приборов и систем контроля за производственными процессами; приостанавливает работы в структурном подразделении в случаях, установленных требованиями охраны труда; обеспечивает наличие в общедоступных местах структурного подразделения документов и информации, содержащих требования охраны труда, для ознакомления с ними работников структурного подразделения и иных лиц; при авариях и несчастных случаях, происшедших в структурном подразделении, принимает меры по вызову скорой медицинской помощи и организации доставки пострадавших в медицинскую организацию; е) начальник производственного участка <1>: -------------------------------<1> В соответствии с требованиями статей 212, 218, 221–223, 225, 227–229.2 Трудового кодекса Российской Федерации. несет персональную ответственность за создание условий труда, соответствующих требованиям охраны труда, реализацию мероприятий по улучшению условий и охраны труда в пределах производственного участка; организует выдачу работникам производственного участка специальной одежды, специальной обуви и других средств индивидуальной защиты, смывающих и обезвреживающих средств; обеспечивает исправное состояние оборудования и инструментов, оснащение рабочих мест необходимыми защитными и оградительными устройствами; участвует в организации проведения специальной оценки условий труда; участвует в организации управления профессиональными рисками; участвует в организации и проведении контроля за состоянием условий и охраны труда на производственном участке; принимает меры по предотвращению аварий на производственном участке, сохранению жизни и �Содержание здоровья работников производственного участка и иных лиц при возникновении таких ситуаций, в том числе мер по оказанию пострадавшим первой помощи; принимает участие в расследовании причин аварий, несчастных случаев, происшедших на производственном участке, и профессиональных заболеваний работников производственного участка, принимает меры по устранению указанных причин, по их предупреждению и профилактике; своевременно информирует руководителя структурного подразделения об авариях, несчастных случаях, происшедших на производственном участке, и профессиональных заболеваниях работников производственного участка; обеспечивает исполнение указаний и предписаний органов государственной власти, выдаваемых ими по результатам контрольно-надзорной деятельности, указаний (предписаний) службы (специалиста) охраны труда; ж) мастер, бригадир производственной бригады <1>: -------------------------------<1> В соответствии с требованиями статей 212, 218, 221–223, 225, 227–229.2 Трудового кодекса Российской Федерации. обеспечивает соответствие условий труда требованиям охраны труда, правильную эксплуатацию оборудования и инструментов, не допускает загроможденности и захламленности рабочих мест, проходов и проездов; проверяет состояние оборудования и инструментов на рабочих местах членов производственной бригады и принимает меры по устранению обнаруженных недостатков; контролирует правильное применение членами производственной бригады выданной специальной одежды, специальной обуви, других средств защиты; не допускает работника к выполнению работ при отсутствии и неправильном применении специальной одежды, специальной обуви и других средств защиты; принимает меры по отстранению от работы работников, находящихся в состоянии алкогольного, наркотического и иного токсического опьянения, с соответствующим документальным оформлением указанного факта, сообщает об этом руководителю структурного подразделения работодателя; организует выдачу членам производственной бригады специальной одежды, специальной обуви и других средств индивидуальной защиты, смывающих и обезвреживающих средств; участвует в организации проведения специальной оценки условий труда; участвует в организации управления профессиональными рисками; участвует в организации и проведении контроля за состоянием условий и охраны труда в производственной бригаде; принимает меры по предотвращению аварий на производственном участке, сохранению жизни и здоровья членов производственной бригады и иных лиц при возникновении таких ситуаций, в том числе меры по оказанию пострадавшим в результате аварии первой помощи; обеспечивает сохранение обстановки на рабочем месте, при которой произошел несчастный случай, если это не угрожает жизни и здоровью других лиц и не ведет к катастрофе, аварии или �Содержание возникновению иных чрезвычайных обстоятельств, а в случае невозможности ее сохранения фиксирует сложившуюся обстановку, а в случае возможного развития аварии принимает необходимые предупредительные меры по обеспечению безопасности членов производственной бригады; принимает участие в расследовании причин аварий, несчастных случаев, происшедших с членами производственной бригады, и профессиональных заболеваний членов производственной бригады, принимает меры по устранению указанных причин, по их предупреждению и профилактике; своевременно информирует руководителя структурного подразделения работодателя об авариях, несчастных случаях и профессиональных заболеваниях на производственном участке; обеспечивает исполнение указаний и предписаний органов государственной власти, выдаваемых ими по результатам контрольно-надзорной деятельности, указаний (предписаний) службы (специалиста) охраны труда; несет ответственность за невыполнение членами производственной бригады требований охраны труда. V. Процедуры, направленные на достижение целей работодателя в области охраны труда 30. С целью организации процедуры подготовки работников по охране труда работодатель, исходя из специфики своей деятельности, устанавливает (определяет): а) требования к необходимой профессиональной компетентности по охране труда работников, ее проверке, поддержанию и развитию; б) перечень профессий (должностей) работников, проходящих стажировку по охране труда, с указанием ее продолжительности по каждой профессии (должности); в) перечень профессий (должностей) работников, проходящих подготовку по охране труда в обучающих организациях, допущенных к оказанию услуг в области охраны труда; г) перечень профессий (должностей) работников, проходящих подготовку по охране труда у работодателя; д) перечень профессий (должностей) работников, освобожденных от прохождения первичного инструктажа на рабочем месте; е) работников, ответственных за проведение инструктажа по охране труда на рабочем месте в структурных подразделениях работодателя, за проведение стажировки по охране труда; ж) вопросы, включаемые в программу инструктажа по охране труда; з) состав комиссии работодателя по проверке знаний требований охраны труда; и) регламент работы комиссии работодателя по проверке знаний требований охраны труда; к) перечень вопросов по охране труда, по которым работники проходят проверку знаний в комиссии работодателя; л) порядок организации подготовки по вопросам оказания первой помощи пострадавшим в результате аварий и несчастных случаев на производстве; м) порядок организации и проведения инструктажа по охране труда; н) порядок организации и проведения стажировки на рабочем месте и подготовки по охране труда. 31. В ходе организации процедуры подготовки работников по охране труда работодатель учитывает необходимость подготовки работников исходя из характера и содержания выполняемых ими работ, имеющейся у них квалификации и компетентности, необходимых для безопасного выполнения своих должностных обязанностей. �Содержание 32. С целью организации процедуры организации и проведения оценки условий труда работодатель, исходя из специфики своей деятельности, устанавливает (определяет): а) порядок создания и функционирования комиссии по проведению специальной оценки условий труда, а также права, обязанности и ответственность ее членов; б) особенности функционирования комиссии по проведению специальной оценки условий труда при наличии у работодателя обособленных структурных подразделений; в) организационный порядок проведения специальной оценки условий труда на рабочих местах работодателя в части деятельности комиссии по проведению специальной оценки условий труда; г) порядок осуществления отбора и заключения гражданско-правового договора с организацией, проводящей специальную оценку условий труда, учитывающий необходимость привлечения к данной работе наиболее компетентной в отношении вида деятельности работодателя; д) порядок урегулирования споров по вопросам специальной оценки условий труда; е) порядок использования результатов специальной оценки условий труда. 33. С целью организации процедуры управления профессиональными рисками работодатель исходя из специфики своей деятельности устанавливает (определяет) порядок реализации следующих мероприятий по управлению профессиональными рисками: а) выявление опасностей; б) оценка уровней профессиональных рисков; в) снижение уровней профессиональных рисков. 34. Идентификация опасностей, представляющих угрозу жизни и здоровью работников, и составление их перечня осуществляются работодателем с привлечением службы (специалиста) охраны труда, комитета (комиссии) по охране труда, работников или уполномоченных ими представительных органов. 35. В качестве опасностей, представляющих угрозу жизни и здоровью работников, работодатель исходя из специфики своей деятельности вправе рассматривать любые из следующих: а) механические опасности: опасность падения из-за потери равновесия, в том числе при спотыкании или подскальзывании, при передвижении по скользким поверхностям или мокрым полам; опасность падения с высоты, в том числе из-за отсутствия ограждения, из-за обрыва троса, в котлован, в шахту при подъеме или спуске при нештатной ситуации; опасность падения из-за внезапного появления на пути следования большого перепада высот; опасность удара; опасность быть уколотым или проткнутым в результате воздействия движущихся колющих частей механизмов, машин; опасность натыкания на неподвижную колющую поверхность (острие); опасность запутаться, в том числе в растянутых по полу сварочных проводах, тросах, нитях; опасность затягивания или попадания в ловушку; опасность затягивания в подвижные части машин и механизмов; опасность наматывания волос, частей одежды, средств индивидуальной защиты; опасность воздействия жидкости под давлением при выбросе (прорыве); опасность воздействия газа под давлением при выбросе (прорыве); �Содержание опасность воздействия механического упругого элемента; опасность травмирования от трения или абразивного воздействия при соприкосновении; опасность раздавливания, в том числе из-за наезда транспортного средства, из-за попадания под движущиеся части механизмов, из-за обрушения горной породы, из-за падения пиломатериалов, из-за падения; опасность падения груза; опасность разрезания, отрезания от воздействия острых кромок при контакте с незащищенными участками тела; опасность пореза частей тела, в том числе кромкой листа бумаги, канцелярским ножом, ножницами, острыми кромками металлической стружки (при механической обработке металлических заготовок и деталей); опасность от воздействия режущих инструментов (дисковые ножи, дисковые пилы); опасность разрыва; опасность травмирования, в том числе в результате выброса подвижной обрабатываемой детали, падающими или выбрасываемыми предметами, движущимися частями оборудования, осколками при обрушении горной породы, снегом и (или) льдом, упавшими с крыш зданий и сооружений; б) электрические опасности: опасность поражения током вследствие прямого контакта с токоведущими частями из-за касания незащищенными частями тела деталей, находящихся под напряжением; опасность поражения током вследствие контакта с токоведущими частями, которые находятся под напряжением из-за неисправного состояния (косвенный контакт); опасность поражения электростатическим зарядом; опасность поражения током от наведенного напряжения на рабочем месте; опасность поражения вследствие возникновения электрической дуги; опасность поражения при прямом попадании молнии; опасность косвенного поражения молнией; в) термические опасности: опасность ожога при контакте незащищенных частей тела с поверхностью предметов, имеющих высокую температуру; опасность ожога от воздействия на незащищенные участки тела материалов, жидкостей или газов, имеющих высокую температуру; опасность ожога от воздействия открытого пламени; опасность теплового удара при длительном нахождении на открытом воздухе при прямом воздействии лучей солнца на незащищенную поверхность головы; опасность теплового удара от воздействия окружающих поверхностей оборудования, имеющих высокую температуру; опасность теплового удара при длительном нахождении вблизи открытого пламени; опасность теплового удара при длительном нахождении в помещении с высокой температурой воздуха; ожог роговицы глаза; опасность от воздействия на незащищенные участки тела материалов, жидкостей или газов, имеющих �Содержание низкую температуру; г) опасности, связанные с воздействием микроклимата и климатические опасности: опасность воздействия пониженных температур воздуха; опасность воздействия повышенных температур воздуха; опасность воздействия влажности; опасность воздействия скорости движения воздуха; д) опасности из-за недостатка кислорода в воздухе: опасность недостатка кислорода в замкнутых технологических емкостях; опасность недостатка кислорода из-за вытеснения его другими газами или жидкостями; опасность недостатка кислорода в подземных сооружениях; опасность недостатка кислорода в безвоздушных средах; е) барометрические опасности: опасность неоптимального барометрического давления; опасность от повышенного барометрического давления; опасность от пониженного барометрического давления; опасность от резкого изменения барометрического давления; ж) опасности, связанные с воздействием химического фактора: опасность от контакта с высокоопасными веществами; опасность от вдыхания паров вредных жидкостей, газов, пыли, тумана, дыма; опасность веществ, которые вследствие реагирования со щелочами, кислотами, аминами, диоксидом серы, тиомочевинной, солями металлов и окислителями могут способствовать пожару и взрыву; опасность образования токсичных паров при нагревании; опасность воздействия на кожные покровы смазочных масел; опасность воздействия на кожные покровы чистящих и обезжиривающих веществ; з) опасности, связанные с воздействием аэрозолей преимущественно фиброгенного действия: опасность воздействия пыли на глаза; опасность повреждения органов дыхания частицами пыли; опасность воздействия пыли на кожу; опасность, связанная с выбросом пыли; опасности воздействия воздушных взвесей вредных химических веществ; опасность воздействия на органы дыхания воздушных взвесей, содержащих смазочные масла; опасность воздействия на органы дыхания воздушных смесей, содержащих чистящие и обезжиривающие вещества; и) опасности, связанные с воздействием биологического фактора: опасность из-за воздействия микроорганизмов-продуцентов, препаратов, содержащих живые клетки и споры микроорганизмов; опасность из-за контакта с патогенными микроорганизмами; опасности из-за укуса переносчиков инфекций; к) опасности, связанные с воздействием тяжести и напряженности трудового процесса: �Содержание опасность, связанная с перемещением груза вручную; опасность от подъема тяжестей, превышающих допустимый вес; опасность, связанная с наклонами корпуса; опасность, связанная с рабочей позой; опасность вредных для здоровья поз, связанных с чрезмерным напряжением тела; опасность физических перегрузок от периодического поднятия тяжелых узлов и деталей машин; опасность психических нагрузок, стрессов; опасность перенапряжения зрительного анализатора; л) опасности, связанные с воздействием шума: опасность повреждения мембранной перепонки уха, связанная с воздействием шума высокой интенсивности; опасность, связанная с возможностью не услышать звуковой сигнал об опасности; м) опасности, связанные с воздействием вибрации: опасность от воздействия локальной вибрации при использовании ручных механизмов; опасность, связанная с воздействием общей вибрации; н) опасности, связанные с воздействием световой среды: опасность недостаточной освещенности в рабочей зоне; опасность повышенной яркости света; опасность пониженной контрастности; о) опасности, связанные с воздействием неионизирующих излучений: опасность, связанная с ослаблением геомагнитного поля; опасность, связанная с воздействием электростатического поля; опасность, связанная с воздействием постоянного магнитного поля; опасность, связанная с воздействием электрического поля промышленной частоты; опасность, связанная с воздействием магнитного поля промышленной частоты; опасность от электромагнитных излучений; опасность, связанная с воздействием лазерного излучения; опасность, связанная с воздействием ультрафиолетового излучения; п) опасности, связанные с воздействием ионизирующих излучений: опасность, связанная с воздействием гамма-излучения; опасность, связанная с воздействием рентгеновского излучения; опасность, связанная с воздействием альфа-, бета-излучений, электронного или ионного и нейтронного излучений; р) опасности, связанные с воздействием животных: опасность укуса; опасность разрыва; опасность раздавливания; опасность заражения; �Содержание опасность воздействия выделений; с) опасности, связанные с воздействием насекомых: опасность укуса; опасность попадания в организм; опасность инвазий гельминтов; т) опасности, связанные с воздействием растений: опасность воздействия пыльцы, фитонцидов и других веществ, выделяемых растениями; опасность ожога выделяемыми растениями веществами; опасность пореза растениями; у) опасность утонуть: опасность утонуть в водоеме; опасность утонуть в технологической емкости; опасность утонуть в момент затопления шахты; ф) опасность расположения рабочего места: опасности выполнения электромонтажных работ на столбах, опорах высоковольтных передач; опасность при выполнении альпинистских работ; опасность выполнения кровельных работ на крышах, имеющих большой угол наклона рабочей поверхности; опасность, связанная с выполнением работ на значительной глубине; опасность, связанная с выполнением работ под землей; опасность, связанная с выполнением работ в туннелях; опасность выполнения водолазных работ; х) опасности, связанные с организационными недостатками: опасность, связанная с отсутствием на рабочем месте инструкций, содержащих порядок безопасного выполнения работ, и информации об имеющихся опасностях, связанных с выполнением рабочих операций; опасность, связанная с отсутствием описанных мероприятий (содержания действий) при возникновении неисправностей (опасных ситуаций) при обслуживании устройств, оборудования, приборов или при использовании биологически опасных веществ; опасность, связанная с отсутствием на рабочем месте перечня возможных аварий; опасность, связанная с отсутствием на рабочем месте аптечки первой помощи, инструкции по оказанию первой помощи пострадавшему на производстве и средств связи; опасность, связанная с отсутствием информации (схемы, знаков, разметки) о направлении эвакуации в случае возникновения аварии; опасность, связанная с допуском работников, не прошедших подготовку по охране труда; ц) опасности пожара: опасность от вдыхания дыма, паров вредных газов и пыли при пожаре; опасность воспламенения; опасность воздействия открытого пламени; �Содержание опасность воздействия повышенной температуры окружающей среды; опасность воздействия пониженной концентрации кислорода в воздухе; опасность воздействия огнетушащих веществ; опасность воздействия осколков частей разрушившихся зданий, сооружений, строений; ч) опасности обрушения: опасность обрушения подземных конструкций; опасность обрушения наземных конструкций; ш) опасности транспорта: опасность наезда на человека; опасность падения с транспортного средства; опасность раздавливания человека, находящегося между двумя сближающимися транспортными средствами; опасность опрокидывания транспортного средства при нарушении способов установки и строповки грузов; опасность от груза, перемещающегося во время движения транспортного средства, из-за несоблюдения правил его укладки и крепления; опасность травмирования в результате дорожно-транспортного происшествия; опасность опрокидывания транспортного средства при проведении работ; щ) опасность, связанная с дегустацией пищевых продуктов: опасность, связанная с дегустацией отравленной пищи; ы) опасности насилия: опасность насилия от враждебно настроенных работников; опасность насилия от третьих лиц; э) опасности взрыва: опасность самовозгорания горючих веществ; опасность возникновения взрыва, происшедшего вследствие пожара; опасность воздействия ударной волны; опасность воздействия высокого давления при взрыве; опасность ожога при взрыве; опасность обрушения горных пород при взрыве; ю) опасности, связанные с применением средств индивидуальной защиты: опасность, связанная с несоответствием средств индивидуальной защиты анатомическим особенностям человека; опасность, связанная со скованностью, вызванной применением средств индивидуальной защиты; опасность отравления. 36. При рассмотрении перечисленных в пункте 35 настоящего Типового положения опасностей работодателем устанавливается порядок проведения анализа, оценки и упорядочивания всех выявленных опасностей исходя из приоритета необходимости исключения или снижения уровня создаваемого ими профессионального риска и с учетом не только штатных условий своей деятельности, но и случаев отклонений в работе, в том числе связанных с возможными авариями. �Содержание 37. Методы оценки уровня профессиональных рисков определяются работодателем с учетом характера своей деятельности и сложности выполняемых операций. Допускается использование разных методов оценки уровня профессиональных рисков для разных процессов и операций. 38. При описании процедуры управления профессиональными рисками работодателем учитывается следующее: а) управление профессиональными рисками осуществляется с учетом текущей, прошлой и будущей деятельности работодателя; б) тяжесть возможного ущерба растет пропорционально увеличению числа людей, подвергающихся опасности; в) все оцененные профессиональные риски подлежат управлению; г) процедуры выявления опасностей и оценки уровня профессиональных рисков должны постоянно совершенствоваться и поддерживаться в рабочем состоянии с целью обеспечения эффективной реализации мер по их снижению; д) эффективность разработанных мер по управлению профессиональными рисками должна постоянно оцениваться. 39. К мерам по исключению или снижению уровней профессиональных рисков относятся: а) исключение опасной работы (процедуры); б) замена опасной работы (процедуры) менее опасной; в) реализация инженерных (технических) методов ограничения риска воздействия опасностей на работников; г) реализация административных методов ограничения времени воздействия опасностей на работников; д) использование средств индивидуальной защиты; е) страхование профессионального риска. 40. С целью организации процедуры организации и проведения наблюдения за состоянием здоровья работников работодатель исходя из специфики своей деятельности устанавливает (определяет): а) порядок осуществления как обязательных (в силу положений нормативных правовых актов <1>), так и на добровольной основе (в том числе по предложениям работников, уполномоченных ими представительных органов, комитета (комиссии) по охране труда) медицинских осмотров, психиатрических освидетельствований, химико-токсикологических исследований работников; -------------------------------<1> Приказ Министерства здравоохранения и социального развития Российской Федерации от 12 апреля 2011 г. № 302н «Об утверждении перечней вредных и (или) опасных производственных факторов и работ, при выполнении которых проводятся обязательные предварительные и периодические медицинские осмотры (обследования), и Порядка проведения обязательных предварительных и периодических медицинских осмотров (обследований) работников, занятых на тяжелых работах и на работах с вредными и (или) опасными условиями труда» (зарегистрирован Министерством юстиции Российской Федерации 21 октября 2011 г., регистрационный № 22111) с изменениями, внесенными приказами Министерства здравоохранения Российской Федерации от 15 мая 2013 г. № 296н (зарегистрирован Министерством юстиции Российской Федерации 3 июля 2013 г., регистрационный № 28970) и от 5 декабря 2014 г. № 801н (зарегистрирован Министерством юстиции Российской Федерации 3 февраля 2015 г., регистрационный № 35848). б) перечень профессий (должностей) работников, которые подлежат медицинским осмотрам, психиатрическим освидетельствованиям, химико-токсикологическим исследованиям. �Содержание 41. С целью организации процедуры информирования работников об условиях труда на их рабочих местах, уровнях профессиональных рисков, а также о предоставляемых им гарантиях, полагающихся компенсациях работодатель исходя из специфики своей деятельности устанавливает (определяет) формы такого информирования и порядок их осуществления. 42. Указанное в пункте 41 настоящего Типового положения информирование может осуществляться в форме: а) включения соответствующих положений в трудовой договор работника; б) ознакомления работника с результатами специальной оценки условий труда на его рабочем месте; в) размещения сводных данных о результатах проведения специальной оценки условий труда на рабочих местах; г) проведения совещаний, круглых столов, семинаров, конференций, встреч заинтересованных сторон, переговоров; д) изготовления и распространения информационных бюллетеней, плакатов, иной печатной продукции, видео- и аудиоматериалов; е) использования информационных ресурсов в информационно-телекоммуникационной сети «Интернет»; ж) размещения соответствующей информации в общедоступных местах. 43. С целью организации процедуры обеспечения оптимальных режимов труда и отдыха работников работодатель исходя из специфики своей деятельности определяет мероприятия по предотвращению возможности травмирования работников, их заболеваемости из-за переутомления и воздействия психофизиологических факторов. 44. К мероприятиям по обеспечению оптимальных режимов труда и отдыха работников относятся: а) обеспечение рационального использования рабочего времени; б) организация сменного режима работы, включая работу в ночное время; в) обеспечение внутрисменных перерывов для отдыха работников, включая перерывы для создания благоприятных микроклиматических условий; г) поддержание высокого уровня работоспособности и профилактика утомляемости работников. 45. С целью организации процедуры обеспечения работников средствами индивидуальной защиты, смывающими и обезвреживающими средствами работодатель исходя из специфики своей деятельности устанавливает (определяет): а) порядок выявления потребности в обеспечении работников средствами индивидуальной защиты, смывающими и обезвреживающими средствами; б) порядок обеспечения работников средствами индивидуальной защиты, смывающими и обезвреживающими средствами, включая организацию учета, хранения, дезактивации, химической чистки, стирки и ремонта средств индивидуальной защиты; в) перечень профессий (должностей) работников и положенных им средств индивидуальной защиты, смывающих и обезвреживающих средств. 46. В целях выявления потребности в обеспечении работников средствами индивидуальной защиты, смывающими и обезвреживающими средствами работодателем определяются наименование, реквизиты и содержание типовых норм выдачи работникам средств индивидуальной защиты, смывающих и обезвреживающих средств <1>, применение которых обязательно. -------------------------------- �Содержание <1> Согласно статье 221 Трудового кодекса Российской Федерации на работах с вредными и (или) опасными условиями труда, а также на работах, выполняемых в особых температурных условиях или связанных с загрязнением, работникам бесплатно выдаются прошедшие обязательную сертификацию или декларирование соответствия специальная одежда, специальная обувь и другие средства индивидуальной защиты, а также смывающие и (или) обезвреживающие средства в соответствии с типовыми нормами. 47. Выдача работникам средств индивидуальной защиты, смывающих и обезвреживающих средств сверх установленных норм их выдачи или в случаях, не определенных типовыми нормами их выдачи, осуществляется в зависимости от результатов проведения процедур оценки условий труда и уровней профессиональных рисков. 48. С целью организации процедур по обеспечению работников молоком, другими равноценными пищевыми продуктами или лечебно-профилактическим питанием работодатель исходя из специфики своей деятельности устанавливает (определяет) перечень профессий (должностей) работников, работа в которых дает право на бесплатное получение молока, других равноценных пищевых продуктов или лечебно-профилактического питания, порядок предоставления таких продуктов. 49. С целью организации проведения подрядных работ или снабжения безопасной продукцией работодатель исходя из специфики своей деятельности устанавливает (определяет) порядок обеспечения безопасного выполнения подрядных работ или снабжения безопасной продукцией, ответственность подрядчика и порядок контроля со стороны работодателя за выполнением согласованных действия по организации безопасного выполнения подрядных работ или снабжения безопасной продукцией. 50. При установлении порядка обеспечения безопасного выполнения подрядных работ или снабжения безопасной продукцией используется следующий набор возможностей подрядчиков или поставщиков по соблюдению требований работодателя, включая требования охраны труда: а) оказание безопасных услуг и предоставление безопасной продукции надлежащего качества; б) эффективная связь и координация с уровнями управления работодателя до начала работы; в) информирование работников подрядчика или поставщика об условиях труда у работодателя, имеющихся опасностях; г) подготовка по охране труда работников подрядчика или поставщика с учетом специфики деятельности работодателя; д) контроль выполнения подрядчиком или поставщиком требований работодателя в области охраны труда. VI. Планирование мероприятий по реализации процедур 51. С целью планирования мероприятий по реализации процедур работодатель исходя из специфики своей деятельности устанавливает порядок подготовки, пересмотра и актуализации плана мероприятий по реализации процедур (далее - План). 52. В Плане отражаются: а) результаты проведенного комитетом (комиссией) по охране труда (при наличии) или работодателем анализа состояния условий и охраны труда у работодателя; б) общий перечень мероприятий, проводимых при реализации процедур; в) ожидаемый результат по каждому мероприятию, проводимому при реализации процедур; г) сроки реализации по каждому мероприятию, проводимому при реализации процедур; д) ответственные лица за реализацию мероприятий, проводимых при реализации процедур, на каждом уровне управления; �Содержание е) источник финансирования мероприятий, проводимых при реализации процедур. VII. Контроль функционирования СУОТ и мониторинг реализации процедур 53. С целью организации контроля функционирования СУОТ и мониторинга реализации процедур работодатель исходя из специфики своей деятельности устанавливает (определяет) порядок реализации мероприятий, обеспечивающих: а) оценку соответствия состояния условий и охраны труда требованиям охраны труда, соглашениям по охране труда, подлежащим выполнению; б) получение информации для определения результативности и эффективности процедур; в) получение данных, составляющих основу для принятия решений по совершенствованию СУОТ. 54. Работодатель исходя из специфики своей деятельности определяет основные виды контроля функционирования СУОТ и мониторинга реализации процедур, к которым можно отнести: а) контроль состояния рабочего места, применяемого оборудования, инструментов, сырья, материалов, выполнения работ работником в рамках осуществляемых технологических процессов, выявления профессиональных рисков, а также реализации иных мероприятий по охране труда, осуществляемых постоянно, мониторинг показателей реализации процедур; б) контроль выполнения процессов, имеющих периодический характер выполнения: оценка условий труда работников, подготовка по охране труда, проведение медицинских осмотров, психиатрических освидетельствований, химико-токсикологических исследований; в) учет и анализ аварий, несчастных случаев, профессиональных заболеваний, а также изменений требований охраны труда, соглашений по охране труда, подлежащих выполнению, изменений или внедрения новых технологических процессов, оборудования, инструментов, сырья и материалов; г) контроль эффективности функционирования СУОТ в целом. 55. Для повышения эффективности контроля функционирования СУОТ и мониторинга показателей реализации процедур на каждом уровне управления работодатель вводит ступенчатые формы контроля функционирования СУОТ и мониторинга показателей реализации процедур, а также предусматривает возможность осуществления общественного контроля функционирования СУОТ и мониторинга показателей реализации процедур. 56. Результаты контроля функционирования СУОТ и мониторинга реализации процедур оформляются работодателем в форме акта. 57. В случаях, когда в ходе проведения контроля функционирования СУОТ и мониторинга реализации процедур выявляется необходимость предотвращения причин невыполнения каких-либо требований, и, как следствие, возможного повторения аварий, несчастных случаев, профессиональных заболеваний, незамедлительно осуществляются корректирующие действия. VIII. Планирование улучшений функционирования СУОТ 58. С целью организации планирования улучшения функционирования СУОТ работодатель устанавливает зависимость улучшения функционирования СУОТ от результатов контроля функционирования СУОТ и мониторинга реализации процедур, а также обязательность учета результатов расследований аварий, несчастных случаев, профессиональных заболеваний, результатов контрольно-надзорных мероприятий органов государственной власти, предложений работников и (или) уполномоченных ими представительных органов. 59. При планировании улучшения функционирования СУОТ работодатель проводит анализ эффективности функционирования СУОТ, предусматривающий оценку следующих показателей: а) степень достижения целей работодателя в области охраны труда; �Содержание б) способность СУОТ обеспечивать выполнение обязанностей работодателя, отраженных в Политике по охране труда; в) эффективность действий, намеченных работодателем на всех уровнях управления по результатам предыдущего анализа эффективности функционирования СУОТ; г) необходимость изменения СУОТ, включая корректировку целей в области охраны труда, перераспределение обязанностей должностных лиц работодателя в области охраны труда, перераспределение ресурсов работодателя; д) необходимость обеспечения своевременной подготовки тех работников, которых затронут решения об изменении СУОТ; е) необходимость изменения критериев оценки эффективности функционирования СУОТ. IX. Реагирование на аварии, несчастные случаи и профессиональные заболевания 60. С целью обеспечения и поддержания безопасных условий труда, недопущения случаев производственного травматизма и профессиональной заболеваемости работодатель исходя из специфики своей деятельности устанавливает порядок выявления потенциально возможных аварий, порядок действий в случае их возникновения. 61. При установлении порядка действий при возникновении аварии работодателем учитываются существующие и разрабатываемые планы реагирования на аварии и ликвидации их последствий, а также необходимость гарантировать в случае аварии: а) защиту людей, находящихся в рабочей зоне, при возникновении аварии посредством использования внутренней системы связи и координации действий по ликвидации последствий аварии; б) возможность работников остановить работу и/или незамедлительно покинуть рабочее место и направиться в безопасное место; в) невозобновление работы в условиях аварии; г) предоставление информации об аварии соответствующим компетентным органам, службам и подразделениям по ликвидации аварийных и чрезвычайных ситуаций, надежной связи работодателя с ними; д) оказание первой помощи пострадавшим в результате аварий и несчастных случаев на производстве и при необходимости вызов скорой медицинской помощи (или оказание первой помощи при наличии у работодателя здравпункта), выполнение противопожарных мероприятий и эвакуации всех людей, находящихся в рабочей зоне; е) подготовку работников для реализации мер по предупреждению аварий, обеспечению готовности к ним и к ликвидации их последствий, включая проведение регулярных тренировок в условиях, приближенных к реальным авариям. 62. Порядок проведения планового анализа действий работников в ходе указанных в подпункте «е» пункта 61 настоящего Типового положения тренировок должен предусматривать возможность коррекции данных действий, а также внепланового анализа процедуры реагирования на аварии в рамках реагирующего контроля. 63. С целью своевременного определения и понимания причин возникновения аварий, несчастных случаев и профессиональных заболеваниях работодатель исходя из специфики своей деятельности устанавливает порядок расследования аварий, несчастных случаев и профессиональных заболеваний, а также оформления отчетных документов. 64. Результаты реагирования на аварии, несчастные случаи и профессиональные заболевания �Содержание оформляются работодателем в форме акта с указанием корректирующих мероприятий по устранению причин, повлекших их возникновение. X. Управление документами СУОТ 65. С целью организации управления документами СУОТ работодатель исходя из специфики своей деятельности устанавливает (определяет) формы и рекомендации по оформлению локальных нормативных актов и иных документов, содержащих структуру системы, обязанности и ответственность в сфере охраны труда для каждого структурного подразделения работодателя и конкретного исполнителя, процессы обеспечения охраны труда и контроля, необходимые связи между структурными подразделениями работодателя, обеспечивающие функционирование СУОТ. 66. Лица, ответственные за разработку и утверждение документов СУОТ, определяются работодателем на всех уровнях управления. Работодателем также устанавливается порядок разработки, согласования, утверждения и пересмотра документов СУОТ, сроки их хранения. 67. В качестве особого вида документов СУОТ, которые не подлежат пересмотру, актуализации, обновлению и изменению, определяются контрольно-учетные документы СУОТ (записи), включая: а) акты и иные записи данных, вытекающие из осуществления СУОТ; б) журналы учета и акты записей данных об авариях, несчастных случаях, профессиональных заболеваниях; в) записи данных о воздействиях вредных (опасных) факторов производственной среды и трудового процесса на работников и наблюдении за условиями труда и за состоянием здоровья работников; г) результаты контроля функционирования СУОТ. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Бородулина Татьяна Петровна Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Правовое регулирование труда педагогических работников в Российской Федерации Subject The topic of the resource 1. Образование. Педагогика. 2. Организация образования. 3. Право. 4. Трудовое право — Российская Федерация. 5. правовое регулирование. 6. регулирование труда. 7. педагогические работники. 8. трудовые договоры. 9. рабочее время. 10. время отдыха (право). 11. оплата труда. 12. охрана труда. Description An account of the resource Правовое регулирование труда педагогических работников в Российской Федерации [Электронный ресурс] : учебное пособие / Т. П. Бородулина, Т. Л. Платунова ; Алтайский государственный педагогический университет. — Барнаул : АлтГПУ, 2018. — 103 с. Учебное пособие представляет собой систематизированное изложение проблемы правового регулирования отношений в сфере труда педагогических работников в РФ. В учебном пособии представлен методический материал по ключевым темам курса. Учебное пособие предназначено для студентов и магистрантов образовательных организаций высшего образования по направлению «Педагогическое образование». Пособие может быть использовано при подготовке к практическим занятиям, а также преподавателями при подготовке лекций по трудовому праву. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Бородулина, Татьяна Петровна Платунова, Татьяна Леонидовна Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Алтайский государственный педагогический университет, 2018 Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Алтайский государственный педагогический университет Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 28.05.2018 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource ©Алтайский государственный педагогический университет, 2018 Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource pdf, exe Language A language of the resource русский Type The nature or genre of the resource Учебное пособие Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context <a href="http://library.altspu.ru/dc/pdf/borodulina1.pdf" target="_blank">http://library.altspu.ru/dc/pdf/borodulina1.pdf<br /></a><a href="http://library.altspu.ru/dc/exe/borodulina1.exe" target="_blank">http://library.altspu.ru/dc/exe/borodulina1.exe</a> время отдыха (право) Образование. Педагогика оплата труда Организация образования охрана труда педагогические работники Право правовое регулирование рабочее время регулирование труда Трудовое право — Российская Федерация трудовые договоры http://books.altspu.ru/files/original/20/114/_[650].png 5fe3b4a8d8e439a34d27fb61e3ac8bdf http://books.altspu.ru/files/original/20/114/Practice_communication_skills_in_English[_].pdf 3db59916a803d8bc1c68cb136500ecf2 PDF Text Text Содержание �Содержание ОБ ИЗДАНИИ Основной титульный экран Дополнительный титульный экран непериодического издания – 1 Дополнительный титульный экран непериодического издания – 2 �Содержание МИНИСТЕРСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ И НАУКИ РОССИЙСКОЙ ФЕДЕРАЦИИ Федеральное государственное бюджетное образовательное учреждение высшего образования «Алтайский государственный педагогический университет» (ФГБОУ ВО «АлтГПУ») Ж.А. Коротких, И.Ю. Кочешкова, Л.Л. Шевченко PRACTICE COMMUNICATION SKILLS IN ENGLISH Religion, Culture and Law Учебное пособие Барнаул ФГБОУ ВО «АлтГПУ» 2018 Об издании - 1, 2, 3. ISBN 978-5-88210-917-1 �Содержание УДК 811.111'271(075) ББК 81.432.1-553я73 К687 Коротких, Ж.А. Practice communication skills in English: Religion, Culture and Law [Электронный ресурс] : учебное пособие / Ж.А. Коротких, И.Ю. Кочешкова, Л.Л. Шевченко. – Барнаул : АлтГПУ, 2018. – Систем. требования: PC не ниже класса Intel Celeron 2 ГГц ; 512 Мb RAM ; Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 ; Adobe Acrobat Reader ; SVGA монитор с разрешением 1024х768 ; мышь. ISBN 978-5-88210-917-1 Рецензенты: Колесов И.Ю., доктор филологических наук, профессор (Алтайский государственный педагогический университет); Кремнева А.В., кандидат филологических наук, доцент (Алтайский государственный технический университет им. И.И. Ползунова) Целью пособия является формирование коммуникативной, социально-культурной и межкультурной компетенций студентов, находящихся на продвинутом этапе изучения английского языка. Основными видами работы на занятиях по культуре речевого общения на данном этапе обучения являются дискуссии, обсуждения и презентации. Поэтому при отборе текстов, аудио- и видеофрагментов авторы стремились предоставить студентам интересный фактический материал, расширяющий их кругозор, развивающий способности критически мыслить и, в то же время, способствующий расширению словарного запаса. В разделы включены сведения по странам всех континентов, что позволяет в процессе дискуссии опираться на культурологические и исторические факты и сопоставлять особенности развития различных культур и обществ. Пособие содержит два раздела: «Культура и религия» и «Культура и правопорядок». Учебное пособие предназначено для студентов старших курсов институтов и факультетов иностранных языков. Рекомендовано к изданию редакционно-издательским советом АлтГПУ 29.03.2018 г. Текстовое (символьное) электронное издание. Системные требования: PC не ниже класса Intel Celeron 2 ГГц ; 512 Мb RAM ; Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 ; Adobe Acrobat Reader ; SVGA монитор с разрешением 1024х768 ; мышь. Об издании - 1, 2, 3. �Содержание Электронное издание создано при использовании программного обеспечения Sunrav BookOffice. Объём издания - 19 050 КБ. Дата подписания к использованию: 08.06.2018 Федеральное государственное бюджетное образовательное учреждение высшего образования «Алтайский государственный педагогический университет» (ФГБОУ ВО «АлтГПУ») ул. Молодежная, 55, г. Барнаул, 656031 Тел. (385-2) 36-82-71, факс (385-2) 24-18-72 е-mail: rector@altspu.ru, http://www.altspu.ru Об издании - 1, 2, 3. �Содержание СОДЕРЖАНИЕ Предисловие Part 1. Culture and Religion Warm-up Section 1. THE EVOLUTION OF RELIGIONS. POLYTHEISM Vocabulary Vocabulary Exercises Text One. The Pre-historic Religions Text Two. What is a “Pagan”? Text Three. Polytheism That Survived Section 2. MONOTHEISM AND ATHEISM Vocabulary Vocabulary Exercises Text One. Monotheistic Religions Text Two. Judaism Text Three. Christianity. The Origin of Christianity Text Four. Catholic and Orthodox Churches Text Five. The Russian Orthodox Church and Its History Text Six. Protestantism Text Seven. Islam Text Eight. Atheistic Religions Revision exercises Section 3. RELIGION IN THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD Text One. Atheism and Agnosticism Text Two. Cults and Sects. Manipulation of Mind Text Three. Religious Intolerance. Anti-Semitism Text Four. Islamophobia Essay Prompts Part 2. Culture and Law Warm-up Section 1. CRIME �Содержание Vocabulary Vocabulary Exercises Text One. Criminal Statistics Text Two. Muggers Of Tokyo Had Better Watch Their Step: The Kimono Cops Are About Text Three. Gun Control Text Four. Couple Face Prison After Drunken Dinner Guest Killed Four In Crash Text Five. To Save Lives, It’s Not Enough To Go After Heavy Drinkers Text Six. Child Abuse Text Seven. Juvenile Delinquency Text Eight. Suicide Text Nine. Euthanasia Text Ten. Organized Crime Individual project: Presentation Section 2. PUNISHMENT Vocabulary Vocabulary Exercises Text One. Social Morality, Rules and Laws Text Two. Imposition of Penalties. Civil and Criminal Penalties Text Three. Imprisonment Text Four. Death Penalty Text Five. Crime Victims Fight Back Text Six. Role of Police Force Revision exercises Essay Prompts Selected Bibliography Appendixes Appendix 1 Appendix 2 �Содержание ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ Учебное пособие предназначено для организации аудиторной и самостоятельной работы студентов, обучающихся по направлению «Педагогическое образование», профиль «Английский язык» и «Лингвистика», профиль «Перевод и переводоведение». Оно рассчитано на 120 часов аудиторной и самостоятельной работы. Основная цель авторов – целенаправленное развитие и совершенствование навыков аргументированной речи в ее устной и письменной разновидностях на продвинутом этапе обучения английскому языку. Структура каждого тематического блока включает в себя унифицированный набор информативных компонентов: Вводный текст (Warm-up) определяет проблематику тематического блока, знакомит с ключевыми понятиями, способствует формированию мотивации к изучению темы. Тематический словарь систематизирует лексические единицы, подлежащие активному усвоению в рамках определенной темы. Тексты обеспечивают студентов информацией и аутентичным языковым материалом, необходимым для обсуждения темы. Усвоение нового материала обеспечивается различными видами упражнений и творческих заданий: Vocabulary Exercises – служат для закрепления тематического словаря, усвоения полного объема значения лексических единиц и особенностей их употребления. Эти упражнения выполняются самостоятельно после того, как студенты ознакомились с соответствующим словарем и проработали каждую лексическую единицу с использованием англоязычного толкового словаря. Упражнения на перевод рекомендуется выполнять письменно. Engaging the text – это вопросы и задания по тексту. Они могут включать работу над лексикой в ее текстовом значении, а также охватывают содержание текста. Эти упражнения контролируют понимание и усвоение студентами новой информации и служат для закрепления навыков использования новой лексики в контексте. Extending the critical context – это вопросы и задания, во-первых, направленные на организацию самостоятельной работы студентов с дополнительными источниками информации, во-вторых, стимулирующие активную дискуссию и обмен мнениями по спорным вопросам, затронутым в ходе изучения темы, с опорой на жизненный опыт и фоновые знания студентов. Такие задания могут быть представлены в форме цитаты или отрывка из публицистического текста для последующего комментирования (устного или письменного), вопросов, апеллирующих к личному мнению студентов, тем для кратких сообщений, основанных на опросе мнения других людей, на изучении отечественных и зарубежных периодических изданий и т. д. Эти упражнения, развивая речевые навыки студентов, стимулируют интерес к изучаемой теме, расширяют кругозор, закрепляют умение работать с различными источниками информации, строить развернутое высказывание, вести диалог и грамотно дискутировать. Render the following article – данный вид работы закрепляет как умение использовать лексические единицы активного словаря и изученных текстов при свободном переложении информации с русского языка на английский, так и умение грамотно и аргументировано высказать собственную точку зрения по проблеме, обсуждаемой в статье, основываясь на изученной информации. Примерная схема реферирования статьи дана в приложении. �Содержание Listening comprehension – упражнения на аудирование тренируют навыки восприятия на слух текстов, содержащих новую информацию в рамках обсуждаемой темы. Задания призваны контролировать как понимание услышанного, так и умение комментировать полученную информацию. Рекомендуется комбинирование письменной и устной формы их выполнения. Все тексты аутентичны, записаны носителями языка и прилагаются к учебному пособию. Video-based listening comprehension – в рамках работы над темой студентам предлагается просмотр и обсуждение видеофрагментов, которые рекомендуются для самостоятельного внеаудиторного просмотра. Задания могут включать вопросы или темы для комментирования; они могут выполняться в устной или письменной форме на усмотрение преподавателя. Видеоматериалы прилагаются к учебному пособию. Creative activities – творческие задания, предполагающие индивидуальную и групповую самостоятельную работу студентов. Результаты этой работы могут быть представлены аудиторно в форме презентации, деловой игры, инсценировки и т. п. или внеаудиторно в форме стенной газеты, буклета, коллажа, электронного макета, видеоролика и т. п. Возможна организация конкурса между студенческими группами. Задания такого рода могут варьироваться по усмотрению преподавателя с учетом индивидуальных особенностей и интересов студентов. Revision exercises – данные упражнения могут использоваться для обобщения и закрепления нового фактического материала и активного словаря; в этом случае они выполняются студентами внеаудиторно с последующим обсуждением. По усмотрению преподавателя они могут также использоваться (полностью или частично) в качестве контрольных тестовых заданий и выполняться аудиторно в письменной форме. Essay Prompts – на завершающем этапе работы над тематическим блоком студенты пишут аргументативное эссе по одной из предлагаемых тем. Рекомендуемый объем эссе – 350–400 слов. Примерная структура аргументативного эссе приводится в приложении. Данный вид работы контролирует грамотность студентов и степень активного владения новыми лексическими единицами, позволяет студентам творчески применить полученные в ходе изучения нового материала знания и высказать личный взгляд на актуальную социальную, этическую, культурную или политическую проблему. Для удобства работы с учебным пособием материал расположен линейно, в той последовательности, которая наиболее целесообразна для его изучения. Однако распределение видов работ может варьироваться в зависимости от профиля и формы обучения и, соответственно, количества часов практического курса языка в рамках действующей программы. Academic objectives of Religion, Culture and Law • To think critically and analytically in response to various forms of discourse (critical essay, newspaper articles, etc.) • To improve speaking and listening abilities in expressing standpoints on the topic under discussion, making presentations with the elements of analysis and synthesis of the material. • To use language creatively – with a sense of imagination, discipline, and stylistic force – for self-expression and communication. • To write effectively and grammatically with an awareness of audience and rhetorical purpose. • To work independently with extra material. This course implies creativity and freedom in search for new information and material in the libraries and on the web. • To build vocabulary through meaningful interaction and language use. Independent work with reference material (monolingual dictionaries) is expected. �Содержание • To improve speaking abilities in rendering Russian articles where the excellence of knowledge, deep analysis and understanding of the topic are expected. ACNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors of the book are grateful to Professors I.Y. Kolesov and A.V. Kremneva for their review and critical remarks, which were very helpful in finalizing the manuscript for publication. �Содержание PART 1. CULTURE AND RELIGION Warm-up Section 1. THE EVOLUTION OF RELIGIONS. POLYTHEISM Vocabulary Vocabulary Exercises Text One. The Pre-historic Religions Text Two. What is a “Pagan”? Text Three. Polytheism That Survived Section 2. MONOTHEISM AND ATHEISM Vocabulary Vocabulary Exercises Text One. Monotheistic Religions Text Two. Judaism Text Three. Christianity. The Origin of Christianity Text Four. Catholic and Orthodox Churches Text Five. The Russian Orthodox Church and Its History Text Six. Protestantism Text Seven. Islam Text Eight. Atheistic Religions Revision exercises Section 3. RELIGION IN THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD Text One. Atheism and Agnosticism Text Two. Cults and Sects. Manipulation of Mind Text Three. Religious Intolerance. Anti-Semitism Text Four. Islamophobia Essay Prompts �Содержание WARM-UP We are going to travel in times and examine the world religions, myths of creation, the hierarchy of gods and heavenly creatures; we will open the veil of mysticism of symbols and secrets of various Orders and Cults. We will have a journey along the historic path and come to our days with a clearer picture of the world. This book is not designed to promote one faith over others. We study different religious faiths in order to understand other people. Many people have strong religious convictions, and it would be impossible to understand them without first understanding their faith. People are regularly persecuted for their beliefs. By understanding one another, we can hope to develop tolerance and respect for all people, their culture and traditions. About half of the people of the world practice Judaism, Christianity, or Islam. They are found on every continent, but tend to be concentrated in North and South America, Europe, Australia, Western Asia and North Africa. Christianity and Islam are growing influences in sub-Saharan Africa, often replacing indigenous faiths. The latter tend to be animistic. Animism is the belief that natural objects, natural phenomena, and the universe itself possess soul or consciousness. This is also similar to the traditional beliefs of Native Americans in North and South America. Even before the times when the Great Roman Empire was spreading its influence over Europe and Asia, there were numerous communities built and governed by Greeks in Asia. Historians mention that probably it was the only time in the world’s history when various religions and faiths had the features of each other and were respected by every member of the community. Alexander the Great, conquering new lands, had a deep understanding of the necessity to win the souls of the new nations by respecting their culture, traditions, faiths and political systems. But unfortunately all these times of tolerance faded throughout the centuries. Nowadays, we face various conflicts and confrontations of one faith over another. For example, the partition that separates Pakistan from India. The two nations were considered one until 1948 when both gained independence from Great Britain. As Pakistan became a Muslim homeland and India a Hindu nation, many Muslim and Hindu families who had lived together for hundreds of years were forced to leave their homes. The 20th century witnessed a lot of cases when ideology exiled the religion from the whole nations as it happened in Russia after 1917 and in China in 1949. Since becoming a communist nation in 1949, China has discouraged religion. Before that many Chinese had practiced the teachings of Confucius and the philosophy of Taoism. For years religions were intimidated by the governments. All religions have the function of explaining the world in terms of absolute truths revealed to people at some point in the past. Most religions postulate the existence of one or more intelligent entities responsible for the existence of everything. Most religions deny the existence of death. There is usually an implication that part of the conscience of every human being is eternal. This manifests itself in beliefs of reincarnations and eternal life at the end of the world. There is a great variety of religious faiths practiced throughout the world. We can generalize those faiths into two or three groups. The type of the classification will depend on the factors one takes as a crucial one. There are at least two ways of classifying the religions of the world: 1) based on the concept of human life 2) based on the number of gods: �Содержание I Linear religions Cyclic religions have a beginning, an end, one life, and (usually) some have the idea of birth, death and rebirth, with kind of judgment day at the end. E.g. Christianity, Islam, reincarnation a major theme. E.g. Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism, and Zoroastrianism. Jainism. II Polytheistic religions Monotheistic religions have many gods. Most basic or animistic religions are essentially polytheistic. Hinduism is the one major religion with many gods. have one god. Often however, are without god. These have no creator there are polytheistic elements god as such, although there may be (like the Trinity, saints, the spirits and other exotic entities. hierarchy of angels, devils, etc). E.g. Buddhism (the Buddha is a human E.g. Judaism, Christianity, Islam, who has reached enlightenment), Zoroastrianism, Sikhism and the Jainism (with its Tirthankas, or Baha’i. teachers), Confucianism, Taoism (more philosophies than god-driven religions). ENGAGING THE TEXT 1. Read, look up and say: a) Christianity [ ] b) Islam [ ] c) Judaism [ ] d) Zoroastrianism [ ] e) Hinduism [ ] f) Buddhism [ ] g) Jainism [ ] h) Sikhism [ i) Baha’i [ ] ] j) Confucianism [ k) Taoism [ ] ] Atheistic Religions �Содержание 2. Answer the following questions: 1) What are the most influential religions in the contemporary world? 2) Do various religions coexist peacefully? How did they interact in different historical epochs in different cultures? 3) What are the functions of any religion within a community (from the cultural, political and social perspectives)? 4) How can we classify various religions of the world? EXTENDING THE CRITICAL CONTEXT I. Do you know when? 1. The Bible was first printed in … a) 1453 c) 1261 b) 1583 d) 988 2. The last witch trial with burning the witch was held in Spain in …. a) 1643 c) 1826 b) 1771 d) 1900 3. The cruel prosecution of priests stopped in the USSR in the … a) 1930s c) 1960s b) 1940s d) late 1980s 4. School prayers were obligatory in the USA until … . a) 1889 c) 1962 b) 1980 d) 1998 5. Catholic Church admitted Darwin’s theory of evolution in … . a) 1910 c) 1996 b) 1960 d) 2000 6. The first Orthodox temple was erected in the Antarctic in … . a) 1911c) 2000 b) 1988 d) 2004 II. Which of the following statements do you support? Why? Give arguments 1. “Religions came into being and still exist because they can satisfy very strong psychological needs of the people.” �Содержание 2. “There is a reality that transcends physical world; that lies beyond or invisibly infuses the world that people can perceive with their five senses. The aim of religions is to tie the people back to something behind the surface of life.” 3. “Religion is a “universal obsessional neurosis” (Sigmund Freud); it’s a cosmic projection of our love/fear relationships with our parents.” 4. “Humans have invented religions or at least used them to manipulate other people. Historically, religions have often served as centers of secular power.” 5. “Man makes religion: religion does not make man… The religious world is but the reflex of the real world… religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the sentiment of a heartless world, and the soul of soulless conditions. It is the opium of the people.” (Karl Marx) 6. “It appears that throughout the world man has always been seeking something beyond his own death, beyond his own problems, something that will be enduring, true and timeless. He has called it God, he has given it many names, and most of us believe in something of that kind, without ever actually experiencing it.” (Jiddu Krishnamurti) 7. “There is a strong desire for perfection in many people. That which is perfect does not seem to exist in our world. Religious practices may offer us access to perfection. Religions describe ideals which can radically transform people.” 8. “Religion was made up to give people hope. Those who are suffering severe physical illness, privation, terror or grief often turn to the divine for help. They believe that miraculous aid come to those who have cried out in their need.” 9. “Religions were created to give answers to our many questions about life. Who are we? Why are we here? What happens after we die? Why is there suffering? Why is there evil? Religious dogmas provide some people with a sense of relief from anxieties. They provide meaning and orderliness in the midst of rapid social change. They may give rules for living, governing everything from diet to relationships.” �Содержание SECTION 1. THE EVOLUTION OF RELIGIONS. POLYTHEISM Vocabulary Vocabulary Exercises Text One. The Pre-historic Religions Text Two. What is a “Pagan”? Text Three. Polytheism That Survived �Содержание VOCABULARY I. Belief 1. belief, faith – вера, религия 2. denomination - вероисповедание 3. a believer/unbeliever – верующий / неверующий 4. conviction – 1) убеждение, вера; 2) признание грехов 5. confession – 1) конфессия, вероисповедание; 2) исповедь 6. indigenous [ ] faiths – местные, туземные верования 7. divinity – 1) божественность; 2) богословие, теология II. Rituals 1. a rite – ритуал, обряд, церемония • to perform a rite — исполнять церемонию • a pagan rite — языческий обряд • a religious rite — религиозный обряд • a solemn rite — священный обряд • to administer last rites — оказывать последние почести 2. a cult – культ, совокупность действий, связанных с отношением к сверхъестественному 3. esoteric – тайный, понятный лишь посвященным 4. to appease gods – умилостивить богов 5. to sacrifice smth to smb – приносить что-либо в жертву кому-либо 6. to conjure [ • ] (out, away) spirits – заклинать, изгонять духов conjuration – колдовство, заклинание 7. idolatry [ ] – идолопоклонство 8. a divination/ prophecy/ premonition – предсказание, пророчество 9. a revelation – откровение 10. a prayer / supplication – молитва, мольба �Содержание 11. to say grace/to pray/to supplicate – молиться, умолять 12. to make the sign of the cross/ to cross oneself/ to bless oneself – перекреститься 13. to confess – исповедоваться 14. to repent – каяться • repentance – покаяние 15. remission of sins – отпущение грехов 16. a sermon – проповедь 17. a service/public worship – церковная служба 18. a liturgy [ ] / a mass – литургия, месса, обедня 19. a baptismal service – крещение 20. to christen [ ], to baptize – крестить 21. a circumcision – обрезание 22. a marriage service – венчание, бракосочетание 23. a burial service – отпевание 24. a service for the dead – заупокойная служба 25. a fast – пост • to keep the fast – соблюдать пост • to break the fast – нарушать пост 26. to go on a pilgrimage – совершать паломничество III. Heavenly creatures 1. a deity [ ]– божество, бог 2. a spirit – дух 3. a seraph [ ] – серафим 4. a cherub [ 5. an archangel [ ] – херувим ] – архангел 6. an angel – ангел 7. a guardian angel – ангел-хранитель 8. a halo – нимб IV. Spiritual leaders and churchpeople 1. the Messiah [ 2. a prophet – пророк ] – мессия �Содержание 3. a saint – святой 4. a martyr [ ] – мученик 5. an apostle [ ] – апостол 6. a disciple [ ] – ученик, последователь 7. a churchman/ churchgoer/ worshipper – верующий, прихожанин 8. a parish – приход 9. a congregation / a flock – религиозное братство, прихожане, паства 10. clergy / priesthood / ministry – духовенство 11. to enter the ministry / the Church, to be ordained – принять сан 12. to defrock – лишить сана 13. a priest – 1) жрец, служитель культа; 2) священник 14. a churchman – 1) священнослужитель; 2) верующий 15. a pope – римский папа 16. a patriarch [ 17. a mufti [ ] – патриарх ] – муфтий 18. a lama – лама, буддийский монах / глава духовенства 19. a parson – приходской священник, пастор 20. a chaplain – капеллан; священник в армии/на корабле/при тюрьме 21. a rabbi [ ] – раввин 22. a mullah [ ] – мулла 23. an abbot – настоятель монастыря 24. a monk – монах 25. a nun – монахиня 26. a hermit – отшельник V. Sacred places and artifacts 1. a temple – храм 2. heathen [ ] temple – капище, языческий храм 3. a church – церковь (храм / институт) 4. a synagogue [ 5. a pagoda [ 6. a mosque [ ] – синагога, культовое здание иудаизма ] – пагода, буддистский храм ] – мечеть, мусульманский храм �Содержание 7. minaret / prayer-tower – минарет 8. a chapel – часовня 9. a belfry [ ] – колокольня 10. a monastery – монастырь 11. a convent / a nunnery – женский монастырь 12. an abbey – аббатство, католический монастырь 13. a cell / a hermitage – 1) жилище отшельника; 2) обитель, келья; 3) скит, уединенный старообрядческий монастырь 14. a shrine – 1) гробница, рака; 2) святыня, место поклонения 15. sanctuary – святилище 16. relics – 1) мощи; 2) святыни, реликвии 17. an altar – 1) жертвенник; 2) алтарь 18. scriptures – священные тексты 19. a crucifix – распятие 20. an icon-lamp – лампада 21. robes / vestment – одеяния, церковное облачение �Содержание VOCABULARY EXERCISES 1.1. Match the words with their synonyms: 1. indigenous a) holy 2. sacred b) god 3. conviction c) tomb 4. deity d) ceremony 5. rite e) cross 6. shrine f) ghost 7. appease g) native 8. supplicate h) convent 9. spirit i) priesthood 10. monastery j) implore 11. ministry k) persuasion 12. crucifix l) propitiate 1.2. Cross an odd word out: 1. a) temple b) parish c) chapel d) belfry 2. a) chaplain b) nun c) monk d) martyr 3. a) prophet c) saint d) seraph 4. a) archangel b) cherub c) disciple d) guardian angel 5. a) indigenous b) original c) extraneous d) native 6. a) heathen b) pagan c) barbarous d) faithful 7. a) deity b) saint c) goddess d) divine being b) apostle 8. a) blasphemy b) grace c) benediction d) collect 1.3. Give corresponding nouns: E.g. to believe – belief, believer �Содержание To confess, to conjure, to prophesy, to divine, to supplicate, to pray, to repent, to remit, to christen, to baptize, to circumcise, to crucify. 1.4. Match the words “seraph” and “cherub” with the following descriptions: a) In Jewish, Christian, and Islamic literature, this word denotes a celestial being with two or three pairs of wings who guards the throne of God. In Christian angelology, they are the highest-ranking in the hierarchy of angels. In art they are often painted red, symbolizing fire. They appear in the Old Testament in a vision of Isaiah as six-winged creatures praising God. b) In Jewish, Christian, and Islamic literature, this word denotes a celestial winged being with human, animal, or birdlike characteristics. They are included among the angels, and in the Hebrew Scriptures they are described as the throne bearers of God. Known as karūbūn in Islam, they repeat “Glory to God” ceaselessly. In art they are often depicted as winged infants. 1.5. Match the words with their definitions: 1. sermon 6. belfry 11. mullah 2. liturgy 7. relic 12. hermit 3. halo 8. prophet 13. saint 4. chapel 9. the Messiah 14. martyr 5. minaret 10. mufti 15. altar a) an object esteemed and venerated because of association with a saint or martyr b) a discourse for the purpose of religious instruction or exhortation, esp. one based on a text of Scripture and delivered by a member of the clergy as part of a religious service c) a person who voluntarily suffers death rather than deny his or her religion d) a particular form or type of the Eucharistic service e) a holy person, whose remains and personal effects are venerated as relics, and who may perform miracles in his lifetime, or miracles may occur in his name after his death f) the promised Redeemer g) a tall tower of a mosque which is used by the muezzin (crier) to proclaim the call to worship five times each day h) a geometric shape usu. in the form of a circle, ring or rayed structure, traditionally representing a radiant light around or above the head of a divine or sacred personage i) a person who speaks by divine inspiration, revealing or interpreting the will of a god j) a person who has withdrawn to a solitary place for a life of religious seclusion k) a separately dedicated part of a church, or a small independent churchlike edifice, devoted to special services l) (in Islamic countries) a title of respect for a person who is learned in, teaches or expounds the sacred law m) a Muslim jurist expert in the religious law n) a raised structure or place used for sacrifice, worship or prayer. �Содержание o) a bell tower either attached to the church or standing apart 1.6. Use the words given below to fill in the gaps. Remember to use the appropriate form of the words. a) a chaplain e) a fortune-teller i) a parish b) to bless oneself f) a churchman j) baptismal c) to pray g) confession k) a divination d) a premonition h) to remit sins 1. A priest cannot disclose the secrets of ................ . 2. Traditionally women went back to the church of the ........ in which they were born to get married. 3. .......... blessed the soldiers before the battle. 4. .......... service may vary in different Christian churches, but in all of them it includes sprinkling people with water or immersing them in it. 5. .......... claim that they can discover the unknown or the future by supernatural means. Such a discovery is called .......... and by church is considered a sin. 6. The man ........... and jumped off the cliff. 7. Only God can ........ all your ........ 8. It makes no difference how hard you ........ or whom you ........ to, only studying hard will help you to pass that examination. 9. He stopped playing in competitions because his friend had a ........... that something dreadful would otherwise happen. 10. Some ........... are very hostile towards the idea of women priests or of churchwomen in general. 1.7. Translate from English into Russian: A. Devil, spirit or power of evil Though sometimes used to refer to demons, the term “devil” more often designates the prince of evil spirits. In the Bible, the Devil is known as Satan, Beelzebub, and Lucifer. In Judaism, Satan emerges as subservient to God and as adversary and accuser of Job and other humans. In post-biblical traditions, he emerges as the tempter of humankind and is responsible for all the sins in the Bible. Christian theology holds that his main task is to tempt humans to reject the way of life and redemption in favour of sin and death. In the Qur’an, the Devil is frequently associated with Iblīs; he tempts the unfaithful but not the true believer. In Hinduism, there is no principal devil, although there are a variety of demons or devilish beings. Buddhists also recognize the existence of many demons, and Mara, the Buddha’s opponent and tempter, is sometimes identified as a specific devil. B. Celibacy Celibacy has existed in some form in most religions. It may include a person’s ritual purity or may be adopted to facilitate spiritual advancement. In shamanistic religions, shamans are often celibate. In Hinduism, “holy men” (women) who have left ordinary secular life to seek final liberation are celibate. Buddhism began as a celibate order, though many sects have since given up celibacy. Chinese Taoism has monastic and independent celibate adepts. Islam has no institutional celibacy, but individuals may embrace it for personal spiritual advancement. Judaism has prescribed �Содержание periods of abstinence, but long-term celibacy has not played a large role. The early Christian church tended to regard celibacy as superior to marriage. Since the 12th century, celibacy has been the rule for Roman Catholic clergy, though clerical celibacy was never adopted by Protestantism. 1.8. Translate from Russian into English 1. После совершения священного обряда пастор обратился к прихожанам с пламенной проповедью. 2. В ходе раскопок было найдено языческое капище, где предположительно совершались человеческие жертвоприношения и другие ритуалы, призванные умилостивить жестоких богов. 3. В скромной келье монаха были только жесткая деревянная кровать, стол, табурет и потемневшее от времени распятие на стене. 4. Спасаясь от преследований мстительного кардинала, Констанция укрылась в женском монастыре. 5. Я бы хотела венчаться в церкви, но мой жених – неверующий, и категорически отказывается от венчания, называя его предрассудком. 6. Один священник был лишен сана за аморальное поведение; после этого он объявил себя мессией, основал собственный культ и сейчас имеет сотни учеников и последователей. 7. Для многих верующих прикосновение к мощам святых мучеников стало последней надеждой на исцеление от недугов. 8. Этот художник много путешествовал, на его картинах мы видим купола православных церквей, минареты мечетей, крыши пагод, величественные камни Стоунхенджа. 9. При переводе древних священных текстов на современные языки неизбежны искажения и неточности. 10. После принятия сана католический священник должен соблюдать обет безбрачия. �Содержание TEXT ONE The Pre-historic Religions Religion is one of the oldest spiritual phenomena pertained to the humankind. Thousands of years ago, when people lived in small communities and didn’t have literacy, they already had their own forms of religions which united them to withstand the hazards of a harsh environment and to rebuff foreign incursions. The religions were a bulwark in understanding people’s place in the universe. Before 3000 BC religions in non-literate tribes were mainly animistic. The excavations of ancient graves and cave paintings strongly suggest that those people had religious beliefs. Later in time, when the tribal community became more shaped and was characterized by agriculture and settlements, the image of divinity emerged, and it was feminine: Mother Earth by a variety of names. Animistic gods often are immortalized by mythology explaining the creation of fire, wind, water, man, animals, and other natural earthly things. Although specific beliefs of animism vary widely, similarities between the characteristics of gods and goddesses and rituals practiced by animistic societies exist. The presence of holy men or women, visions, trance, dancing, sacred items, and sacred spaces for worship, and the connection felt to the spirits of ancestors are characteristic of animistic societies. The characteristics of pre-historic religions are animism, mana, magic, and shamanism. Animism is the belief that the world is full of (nature) spirits, and they can do you good or harm, but can be influenced. Mana is the belief in supernatural force or power that can be ascribed to persons, spirits or inanimate objects. Magic is the belief that such means as charms and spells have supernatural power over natural forces. Magic is often distinguished from religion as being more mechanical and emphasizing technique. Its techniques are usually regarded as means to specific ends – an enemy’s defeat, rainfall, etc. The most wide-spread forms of magic are witchcraft and sorcery. It is believed that sorcery may be practiced by anyone with appropriate knowledge, using charm, spells, or potions. Witchcraft is considered to result from inherent mystical power and to be practiced by invisible means. Another distinction between witchcraft and sorcery is that sorcery is always used with evil intent. Shamanism is the belief that certain people (shamans) are born gifted to handle the spirits and mana. They were considered to be intermediary between the natural and supernatural worlds, using magic to cure illness, foretell the future, and control spiritual forces. In cultures where shamanism occurs, sickness is usually thought of as “soul loss”; it is thus the shaman’s task to leave his body during trancelike state, enter the spirit world, capture the lost soul and reintegrate it in the body. It is also the shaman’s task to escort the souls of the dead to the other world. In those times, there were four widely spread practices performed by shamans: divination, imitation, totemism, and fetishism. Divination was the reading of the present signs and the future to which they point by reading flights of birds, animal guts, heat-cracked bones and shells, tossed sticks or stones. Imitation was a performing on a small scale in advance, what the tribe wanted to happen on a large scale later (e.g., hunting dances, cave painting of successful hunting — all done beforehand). Totemism was a tribe's or clan's identifying with a totem, that is, a "power animal" (bear, buffalo, lion, eagle), whose �Содержание body or blood may be ritually eaten or drunk for spiritual renewal. Fetishism was the use of objects (fetishes) like amulets, feathers, pipes to influence spirits. These religions were used to be called "primitive," now they are called "basic" or "primal" religions, due largely to the work of historian of religion Mircea Eliade (University of Chicago), who argued that in that period religion was at its purest. Mainly because their religion was their worldview (basic view of reality), whereas for us, our religions are in tension with our worldview (which is modern scientific); he called these non-literate tribal people homo religiosus (humans full of religion); by comparison, we moderns "dabble" in religion, and most of life and world is secular, unsacred. Many of our modern behaviors may be holdovers or throwbacks to tribal religion, especially (but not only) our "superstitions." Are sports teams' names and mascots totems? Are many of our taboos really taboos? What about our lucky charms and mementos? What is flipping a coin, if not divination? Is building a scale model of a building before construction imitation? Why are horoscopes, palm reading, interpreting dreams, and tarot cards so popular today? Why do we trust psychics? Why do we say "Gesundheit" and "Knock on wood"? from Dr. Paul A. Laughlin’s “Non-Western Religions Outline”, Part 1 [Electronic resource] Access mode: http://laughlinonline.net/IN ST380NotesI-F03.html ENGAGING THE TEXT 1. Give Russian equivalents: To withstand the hazards of a harsh environment; to rebuff foreign incursions; bulwark; to immortalize; witchcraft; sorcery; potions, charms; spells; to be used with evil intent; to handle the spirits; to foretell the future; spiritual renewal; secular; holdover; memento; to flip a coin; palm reading. 2. Answer the questions: 1) When did the first religions emerge? How do we learn about them? 2) What was revered by non-literate tribes? 3) What are the characteristics of the pre-historic religions? 4) What practices were performed by shamans? Describe each of them. 5) Why is the term “primal” more adequate than “primitive” when we discuss pre-historic religions? Who are homo religiosus and people dabbled in religion? 6) What modern behaviors may be holdovers or throwbacks to tribal religions? Supply examples. �Содержание EXTENDING THE CRITICAL CONTEXT I. Compare superstitions / lucky charms / taboos that exist in Russian culture and other cultures (e.g. connected with weddings, birth of a child, good and bad luck, etc.). II. Are you a superstitious person? Are your family and friends? What makes contemporary people superstitious? VIDEO-BASED LISTENING COMPREHENSION Watch the video presentation about Animism. Access mode: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jg3zbRS8cuc Answer the questions: 1. What is the etymology of the word “animism”? 2. Is animism a religion? 3. What is the core belief in animism? 4. Do animistic indigenous people have a word in their language that corresponds to “animism”? Why? 5. What is a Spirit in animism? 6. Do those who practice animism know the spirits personally? 7. How were trees viewed in many cultures? 8. Who are dryads? 9. Are humans spirits? 10. In animism, can spirit kill? 11. Who are shamans? 12. In what is animism generally expressed? 13. Is animism present today in any religion? VIDEO-BASED LISTENING COMPREHENSION Watch the video presentation about Shamanism. Access mode: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MhbwKDQU3wY Answer the questions: 1. What is the most common idea of a shaman in the modern western world? 2. What is the origin of the word “shaman”? 3. Are there clear-cut distinctions between traditional forms of shamanism and modernized ones? 4. Is shamanism an organized religion? 5. How can shaman create changes that will manifest in the physical world? 6. What is the basis of shamanism? 7. What is the mission of a shaman? 8. Did many formalized religions come from ancient shamanistic roots? �Содержание VIDEO-BASED LISTENING COMPREHENSION Watch the video presentation about Ancient Symbols Access mode: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Cc_B4H1TnBU Remember the names and be ready to describe the meaning of each symbol. State what symbol is described in each paragraph: 1. The loops reflect the balance of opposites: male and female, day and night, dark and light. The sign implies equality between opposing forces, with the connecting point in the center the convergent point. The sign also epitomizes the idea of sexual union and of "two becoming one." It stands for wholeness and completion. 2. The sign symbolizes unity, eternity, wholeness and perfection. It is an important ritual and spiritual symbol of the Hindus and Buddhists denoting the Universe and the concept of never-ending life. It can be considered a cosmic diagram that depicts the integrated organizational structure of life. It emphasizes our relation to the world that exists both within and beyond our mind and body. It describes material as well as non-material realities and appears in every aspect of life, including the celestial circles such as sun, moon and earth; and the conceptual circles of family, friends and community. 3. The word naming this symbol is a Sanskrit word meaning "It is", "Well Being", "Good Existence", and "Good Luck". As any symbol it can have positive and negative meaning depending on how it is drawn. So in Hinduism, the right-hand drawing of the symbol is a symbol of the God Vishnu and the Sun, while the left-hand is a symbol of Kali and Magic. It is a symbol used by of one of the most hated men on Earth, a symbol that represents the slaughter of millions of people and one of the most destructive wars on Earth. 4. It is best known for the power to protect the owner from the evil eye and it brings happiness to the holder. It is a good luck symbol. The holder of this symbol expects to be protected from all negative energies. 5. This symbol can be found in all major religions of the world. It is a geometrical figure composed of multiple evenlyspaced, overlapping circles. It is considered to be a symbol of sacred geometry, and is said to contain ancient, religious value depicting the fundamental forms of space and time. Through this symbol one can discover the most important and sacred pattern in the universe. 6. This symbol was widely used as an amulet in Ancient Egypt. It represented eternal life and the key to all hidden knowledge. It was also a fertility symbol. The loop symbolized the eternal soul as it has no beginning or end. 7. This symbol represents the sense of harmony and unity within ourselves and with the environment to which we aspire. It is a symbol of the spiritual development of the human being. The different steps symbolize the various stages of spirituality to be achieved. Reaching the top consists in reassembling in a unique point the directions scattered at the four corners of our life. 8. Originally, in Greek mythology, it is an attribute of the god Hermes. The scepter of Hermes conveyed the image of trade, communication and eloquence, and also wisdom, power and authority. It was also the symbol of peace and neutrality. In 1902 it became the symbol of medicine, but because of its relationship with Hermes, many American doctors refused the symbol and preferred traditional rod of Aesculapius. This is a rod around which winds only one snake. This symbol also comes from the Greek mythology. It was the emblem of Asclepius, the Greek god of medicine. �Содержание 9. In terms of spirituality, this symbol can represent the path leading from outer consciousness (materialism, external awareness, ego, outward perception) to the inner soul (enlightenment, unseen essence, nirvana, cosmic awareness). Moreover, in terms of rebirth or growth, the symbol can represent the consciousness of nature beginning from the core or center and thus expanding outwardly. This is the way of all things, as recognized by most mystics. 10. This is the most universal and one of the most sacred symbols in Hinduism. Its sound is used in meditation. In Hinduism, this word is the first syllable in any prayer. More specifically, this symbol is used to symbolize the universe and the ultimate reality. Some people say that this symbol represents the three aspects of God: the Brahma (A), the Vishnu (U) and the Shiva (M). Hindus believe that the essence of the Vedas (ancient Indian scriptures) is enshrined in this word. The belief that the Lord started creating the world after chanting this word gives this religious symbol a fundamental relevance to the Hindu view of creation. Hence, its sound is considered to create an auspicious beginning for any task that one may undertake. 11. It has been used as a religious symbol throughout the world from the beginning of recorded history. This symbol was used in ancient Chinese and Japanese religions to symbolize the five elements of life. In Japanese culture the symbol was also considered magical. In Christian symbolism, the basic symbol (without a circle) was originally used to represent the five wounds of Jesus Christ. Pagan and neo-pagan groups use it in all manner of rituals and ornamentation because it symbolizes infinity, the binding of the five elements, and protection of the self. The inverted symbol was a symbol of evil because it presented an inversion of the natural order, placing matter over the spirit world. Since then, the inverted symbol has had associations with occult practices and black magic. 12. It was a powerful protection symbol in Ancient Egypt. It was also a symbol of royal power and good health. Today many people wear it as an amulet to protect themselves from envious and ill-wishing people. It is especially popular in the Mediterranean countries. It is not uncommon to see this symbol painted on fishing boats in these countries. It is used as a protection symbol ensuring a safe journey at sea. It is also known as the Wedjat. Speak about each of the following symbols: �Содержание VIDEO-BASED LISTENING COMPREHENSION Watch the video presentation about Polytheism. Access mode: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Tq3VBUCknlc Fill in the blanks: Polytheism is the ________ of or belief in multiple deities usually assembled into a ___________ of gods and goddesses, along with their own religions and rituals. In most religions which accept polytheism, the different gods and goddesses are representations of forces of nature or _____________ principles, and can be viewed either as autonomous or as aspects or emanations of a creator God or transcendental absolute principle (_________________ theologies), which manifests immanently in nature (panentheistic and pantheistic theologies). It is a type of theism. Within theism, it contrasts with monotheism, the belief in a singular God, in most cases transcendent. Polytheists do not always worship all the gods equally, but can be henotheists, specializing in the worship of one particular deity. Other polytheists can be kathenotheists, worshiping different deities at different times. Polytheism was the typical form of religion during the __________ Age and __________ Age, up to the Axial Age and the development of the Abrahamic religions which enforced strict monotheism. It is well documented in historical religions of Classical antiquity, especially ancient Greek religion and ancient Roman religion, and after the decline of Greco-Roman polytheism in __________ religions such as Germanic paganism and Slavic paganism. Important polytheistic religions practiced today include Chinese traditional religion, Hinduism, Japanese ___________, and the _____________ context. The term comes from the Greek “poly” (many) and “theos” (god) and was first invented by the Jewish writer Philo of Alexandria to argue with the Greeks. When Christianity spread throughout Europe and the Mediterranean, nonChristians were just called Gentiles (a term originally used by Jews to refer to ______________ or pagans (locals), or, in a clearly ______________ idolaters (worshiping ______________ gods). The modern usage of the term was first revived in French through Jean Bodin in __________, followed by Samuel Purchas’s usage in English in ______________. Note: • Emanation – a being or force that is a manifestation of God; �Содержание • Panentheism – the belief or doctrine that God is greater than the universe and includes and interpenetrates it. • Immanently – неотъемлемo LISTENING COMPREHENSION Polytheistic Religions. Paganism I. Listen to the text and fill in the gaps: Between about (1) ………. and around (2) ………. in the Eastern hemisphere flourish various religions that are associated with specific ancient civilizations and culture. For example, Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, China, Japan, Greece, Rome, later, in Americas: Mayans, Incas, Aztecs. Those religions were characterized by polytheism, ritualism, (3) ………., building (4) ………. and writing down (5) …….…. Sometimes the number of (6) ………. and (7) ………. reached tens, thousands or even millions. The rituals were performed in order to (8) ………. wrathful gods offering them animal, plant or human (9) ………., or some material possessions. (10) ………. were substituted by a formal office of ritualists who (11) ………. ………. ………., and made sacrificial offerings in places dedicated to the service or worship of a (12) ………. ……….. In ancient times people did not have what most historians call “missionary zeal”. Probably this was the reason why they either (13) ………. or were replaced. Only two of them survived till the modern times: (14) ………. and (15) ……….. It is necessary to consider the cosmogony of a people if one is to attempt to understand them. How the people view the world greatly depends on where they believe they came from. In many ways, modern peoples are products of their (16) ………. ………. ………. ……….. Creation stories explain man’s connection to (17) ………. and (18) ……….. By explaining the source of nature, and human’s role in nature, man can (19) ………. ………. for human relations, agriculture, science, law, customs, art and society. In all times and in all cultures people created myths reflecting their beliefs, providing the superior ground to rely on. They were mainly handed from generation to generation by word of mouth. Probably this is one of the reasons why nowadays we have a better grasp of some religions and sometimes know absolutely nothing of others. Myths do not appear (20) ……….; at the same time, each of the creation tales is unique, and this uniqueness allows us to see distinctions in the (21) ………. and (22) ………. of the individual cultures. Beliefs of ancient Celtic, Egypt, Greece, Norse, Rome, and other cultures are frequently referred to as Pagan religions. II. Answer the questions: 1. Which characteristics distinguish polytheistic religions from the animistic religions of the non-literate tribes? 2. What were the purposes of pagan rites? 3. Why did most polytheistic religions die out? How do you understand the meaning of the word combination “missionary zeal”? 4. What is “cosmogony”? 5. How do myths characterize various cultures? �Содержание TEXT TWO What is a “Pagan”? There is no generally accepted, single, current definition for the word “pagan”. The word is among the terms called "skunk words.” They have so many meanings that they often cause misunderstandings wherever they are used. “Pagan” comes from the Latin word “paganus” which originally meant “country dweller”. In the early years of the Christian movement, the term referred to conservative folks from the rural areas who continued to follow ancient religions, long after city dwellers had converted to Christianity. By the third century AD, its meaning evolved to include all non-Christians. Eventually, it became an evil term that implied the possibility of Satan worship. The latter two meanings are still in current use. Paganism refers to a range of spiritual paths which are Earth centered – involving their members living in harmony with the Earth and observing its cycles. These are Neo-pagan religions based on the deities, symbols, practices, seasonal days of celebration and other surviving components of ancient religions. The World Christian Encyclopedia estimates over 10 million Americans call themselves pagans, who practice primal religions such as Druidism, Odin worship and Native American shamanism. The Druidic religion, for example, is based on the faith and practices of the ancient Celts of Gaul, Britain, and Ireland. They believed that different gods lived in the trickiest and darkest parts of the forests. Stonehenge was believed to be the temple of Druids (a class of priests). They declared that their gods were angry and to propitiate them, people had to offer up human sacrifices in huge baskets which were burned in the sacred oak woods. Over 6 million Americans profess to be witches. Witches do not worship the devil; they are more interested in magical arts and the divinity of nature. Religious and social conservatives sometimes use "pagan" as a general purpose “snarl” word to refer to cultures or religions that are very different from the speaker’s. It can be seen directed at any religious or cultural group that the speaker hates. For example: Jerry Falwell said that God became sufficiently angry at America that he engineered the terrorist attack on New York City and Washington – presumably to send Americans a message. He said: “I really believe that the Pagans, and the abortionists, and the feminists, and the gays and the lesbians ...all of them who have tried to secularize America – I point the finger in their face and say 'you helped this happen’.” ENGAGING THE TEXT 1. Explain the meaning of the following words: a skunk word; rural; to convert; to propitiate; a snarl word; to secularize. 2. Answer the questions: 1) Trace the changes in the meaning of the word “pagan”. What connotation does the word have in your culture? 2) What is “Neo-paganism”? Supply examples. 3) Comment on the quotation from J. Falwell. �Содержание EXTENDING THE CRITICAL CONTEXT I. Greek and Roman mythology is the most famous in the western culture. The names of Greek deities and heroes became symbolic; their stories are the eternal source of allusions in classical and modern art. Gods are not omnipotent beings. Each is thought of possessing a certain sphere of influence. A. Give the transcription of the names and their Russian equivalents. Match the names of Greek deities with the names of their Roman counterparts. Find the description of their "functions" and the main events of their lives. Gre e ce 1) Zeus 2) Poseidon 3) Hades 4) Hera 5) Nike 6) Athena 7) Aphrodite 8) Apollo 9) Artemis 10) Hephaestus 11) Ares 12) Hermes 13) Eros 14) Demeter 15) the Graces 16) Pan 17) Dionysus 18) the Fates 19) the Muses Rome a) Ceres b) Jupiter c) the Gratiea d) Satyr e) Bacchus f) the Parcae g) Victoria h) Neptune i) Apollo j) Juno k) Cupid l) Minerva m) Mars n) Vulcan o) Venus p) Pluto q) Diana r) Mercury s) the Camenae B. Render the description of the gods and mythological characters and name them: 1) Царь среди богов, повелитель ветра и грома. Сочетался браком со своей сестрой Герой, но верности ей не хранил. Считался отцом Афродиты, Аполлона, Ареса, Артемиды, Афины, Гефеста и Гермеса. 2) Богиня брака и материнства. Ревновала своего мужа к его многочисленным любовницам и всячески вредила им и их детям. 3) Повелитель морей, обычно изображался с трезубцем в руках, часто в золотой колеснице. Отличался вспыльчивым нравом и постоянно конфликтовал со своим братом Зевсом. Считалось, что его гнев вызывает землетрясения. 4) Бог врачевания, поэзии и науки, обладавший даром зачаровывать животных звуками своей лиры. Брат-близнец Артемиды. �Содержание 5) Бог-кузнец, покровитель ремесел. Родился хромым. Мать Гера посчитала сына настолько уродливым, что сбросила его с Олимпа на землю. Однако позднее он восстановил свое положение на Олимпе. Женился на Афродите. 6) Повелитель царства мертвых – подземного мира, брат Зевса. Похитил Персефону, и сделал ее своей супругой. 7) Бог войны. Римляне считали его отцом Ромула и Рема, основателей Рима. В ранних верованиях древних римлян ему поклонялись как богу плодородия. 8) Богиня-дева, покровительница охоты. Наказала охотника Актеона за то, что он застал ее купающейся: она превратила юношу в оленя, и его растерзали собственные собаки. 9) Находчивый и остроумный «вестник богов», сын Зевса и нимфы Майи. Часто изображался обутым в крылатые сандалии. 10) Богиня мудрости, покровительница архитекторов и скульпторов. Появилась из головы Зевса уже взрослой. Была богиней-воительницей и часто изображалась с копьем и щитом. 11) Родилась из морской пены у побережья острова Кипр. Ее постоянно сопровождали Эрос и три Грации. 12) Бог виноделия и исступленного веселья. Сын Зевса и Семелы, дочери фиванского царя. Рос без надзора на горе Ниса, где научился виноделию. 13) Покровитель пастухов и бог лесов. Изображался в виде человека с ногами козла и рогами, играющим на пастушеской тростниковой свирели. 14) Четырнадцать богов-титанов были низвергнуты богами-олимпийцами. Когда они восстали против новых порядков, Зевс заточил их глубоко под землей. Только он сохранил верность олимпийцам и был допущен в их общество. Но он похитил у богов огонь и принес его людям. В наказание Зевс приковал его к скале, где орел каждый день клевал ему печень, которая ночью восстанавливалась. 15) Богиня земледелия и плодородия. Когда ее дочь Персефону похитил Аид, остановила созревание зерновых культур до тех пор, пока Аид не пообещал вернуть ее дочь. Бог царства мертвых отпустил Персефону с условием, что она будет проводить в его подземном царстве четыре месяца в году. На это время на земле устанавливалась зима. 16) Прекрасные девушки, духи воздуха, земли, деревьев и воды, они часто вызывали любовь богов. 17) Девять богинь-покровительниц искусств и творческой деятельности, сопровождали Аполлона. C. Match the names of Muses and the arts they presided: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) Calliope Clio Erato Euterpe Melpomene Polyhymnia Terpsichore Thalia Urania a) Religious music b) Lyric poetry c) Dance d) Astronomy e) History f) Music g) Comedy h) Tragedy i) Epic poetry �Содержание EXTENDING THE CRITICAL CONTEXT Read the American Indian creation story and find the concepts and symbols similar to those we come across in Abrahamic religions. The Creation Story (Iroquois) In the beginning, the world was not as we know it now. It was a water world inhabited only by animals and creatures of the air who could survive without land. Up above, the Sky World was quite different. Human-type beings lived there with infinite types of plants and animals to enjoy. In the sky world, there was a Tree of Life that was very special to the people of the Sky World. They knew that it grew at the entrance to the world below and forbade anyone to tamper with the Tree. One woman who was soon to give birth was curious about the Tree and convinced her brother to uproot the Tree. Beneath the Tree was a great hole. The woman peered from the edge into the hole and suddenly fell off the edge. As �Содержание she was falling she grasped at the edge and clutched in her hand some of the earth from the Sky World. As she fell, the birds of the world below were disturbed and alerted to her distress. The birds responded and gathered a great many of their kind to break her fall and cradle her to the back of a great sea turtle. The creatures of the water believed that she needed land to live on, so they set about to collect some for her. They dove to the great depths of the world’s ocean to gather earth to make her a place to live. Many of the animals tried to gather the earth from the ocean floor, only the muskrat was successful. With only a small bit of earth brought on to turtle’s back from his small paws, Turtle Island began to grow. The Sky Woman soon gave birth to a daughter on Turtle Island. The daughter grew fast. There were no man-beings on Turtle Island, but a being known as the West Wind married the daughter of Sky Woman. Soon the daughter of Sky Woman gave birth to Twins. One was born the natural way, and he was called the RightHanded Twin. The other was born in a way that caused the death of the mother. He was called the Left-Handed Twin. When their mother died, their grandmother, Sky Woman, places the fistful of earth that she grasped from the edge of the Sky World, and placed it on her daughter’s grave. The earth carried special seeds from the Sky World that were nourished by the earth over her daughter. So from the body of her daughter came the Sacred Tobacco, Strawberry and Sweetgrass. We call these Kionhekwa. The Life Givers. The Right and Left-Handed Twins were endowed with special creative powers. The Right-Handed Twin created gentle hills, beautiful smelling flowers, quiet brooks, butterflies and numerous creatures, plants and earth formations. His brother the Left-Handed twin made snakes, thorns on rose bushes, thunder and lightning and other more disturbing attributes of today’s world. Together they created man and his many attributes. The Right-Handed Twin believed in diplomacy and conflict resolution. The Left-handed Twin believed in conflict as resolution. They were very different, but all that they created is an integral part of this Earth’s Creation. Their grandmother, Sky Woman, now came to the end her life. When she died, the Twins faught over her body and pulled it apart, throwing her head into the sky. As part of the Sky World, there her head remained to shine upon the world as Grandmother Moon. The Twins could not live together without fighting. They agreed to dwell in different realms of the earth. The Right-handed Twin vontinued to live in the daylight and the Left-Handed Twin became a dweller of the night. Both of them continue their special duties to their Mother the Earth. III. Render the given extracts from Russian into English. Use your active vocabulary: Культура Майя В течение шести веков в джунглях Центральной Америки процветала высокоразвитая цивилизация майя, чтобы потом таинственно погибнуть. То, что осталось, поражало сложностью мировосприятия. Майя использовали пиктограммы для ведения отсчета дней, начало которых соответствует 3113 до н. э. Майя считали, что боги сотворили мир и трижды его уничтожили в течение трех тысяч лет. В первом мире люди были из глины, не умели думать, поэтому и подверглись ликвидации. Их сменило деревянное племя – бездушное и глупое. Оно было съедено демонами. Затем боги слепили предков майя из каши, сваренной из священного растения – кукурузы. Наконец, уничтожив их, создали наш мир с людьми из плоти и крови. �Содержание Правители майя считались полубогами или как минимум верховными жрецами, связывающими людей с воинственными божествами и демонами. Некоторые небожители обладали сложным характером, сочетавшим разные начала. Главными в пантеоне были боги природных стихий, растительности и сезонов, т. е. времени. Культура Ацтеков Цивилизация ацтеков в Центральной Америке, поразившая европейских открывателей яркими цветами, богатством, гигантскими пирамидами и жестокостью жертвоприношений, была стерта с лица земли Кортесом и его войском. Племя, неотъемлемой частью которого была война, исчезло, оставив лишь руины. Согласно древнему мифу, однажды ночью верховному жрецу ацтеков явился бог войны и солнца. Он сказал: «Иди и найди кактус (теноточтли), на котором сидит радостный орел. Там мы поселимся и будем править. Там будет наш город Мехико – Теночтитлан, где кричит, расправив крылья, орел. Где плавает рыба и пожирается орлом змея». Ацтеки нашли то место и подчинили себе соседние племена. Опытные и жестокие воины, они также оказались и ловкими дипломатами, заключавшими выгодные браки и союзы с окружавшими городами – государствами. В центре Теночтитлана была сооружена огромная пирамида. Широкая двойная лестница была украшена головами крылатых змей, поднималась к платформе с двумя святилищами – одно посвящалось богу войны и солнца, главному покровителю ацтеков, другое – богу дождя. На территории стояли также святилища, посвященные главным персонажам Центральноамериканского пантеона. Здесь были святилища “пернатого змея”, бога ветров и знания; бога ночного неба и молодых воинов, владычицы кукурузы и др. К местам молитв приносились огромные ящики, в которых висели головы принесенных в жертву людей. Эти черепа – яркое свидетельство мрачных ритуалов, свойственных ацтекскому обществу. Жертвоприношения были важной чертой многих празднеств: на одном обязательно убивали детей; на другом жрецы приносили в жертву кожу взрослых людей. Тела убитых съедались. Жертвоприношения считались необходимыми для стабильности Вселенной: пролитой кровью ацтеки как бы подпитывали космические ритмы движения планет, смены дня и ночи, сухих и дождливых сезонов. Мысль о долгом мире их пугала, они боялись, что тогда наступит конец света. IV. Find information about Slavic pantheon, pagan rites and mythological characters. Do Russian people still believe in them? �Содержание TEXT THREE Polytheism That Survived Hinduism Hinduism is the oldest extant religion dating back to over 3000 BC. Modern Hinduism is a collection of beliefs and rites from all over the Indian Subcontinent. There are many gods so this is a real polytheistic religion. The more important of the deities are described below. Brahma is the creator. All Hindu gods have four arms but Brahma also has four faces. The creator’s job is completed so there are few temples to Brahma. His consort is Sarasvati who rides on a swan. Vishnu is the preserver. He is shown holding a coral shell. �Содержание Vishnu has made many incarnations on the Earth (like the Christian god). These include Rama who is the subject of carvings, stories and dance all over Asia. The epic Ramayana (an Asian version of the Odyssey) is the story of Rama. Another incarnation is Krishna who lived amongst peasants and cavorted with milk maids. Krishna is always shown in blue, playing a flute. Many Hindus believe that Buddha is also an incarnation of Vishnu. Vishnu’s consort is Laxmi, goddess of wealth. Shiva is the destroyer and reproducer. Shiva is king of the River Ganges. He lives in the Himalaya and smokes Ganga. His symbol is the trident. He is closely associated with a giant bull called a Nandi which is often found outside Shiva temples. �Содержание Shiva’s consort is the beautiful Parvati, who epitomizes all the womanly virtues. She has another form, the evil Durga (or Kali) who requires sacrifice. Worshippers of Kali used to perform human sacrifice. They were called Thugees from where the English word ‘thugs’ is derived. Ganesh is the popular and much worshipped son of Shiva and Parvati. His father once lopped his head off in anger and replaced it with an elephant’s head! He is the god visited when a new venture is about to begin. �Содержание Hinduism has a caste system where everybody is born into one of five castes: • priests • warriors • merchants and governors • craftsmen • the untouchables or lowest caste. It is believed that one's caste is determined by the actions (or Karma) in a past life. A good life means the next one will be better and vice versa. The holy animal is the Cow (another form of Laxmi). True Hindus are vegetarian and will not eat meat. The holiest site for Hindus is Varanasi on the banks of the River Ganges. All good Hindus dream of dying here. Hindus (unlike Jews, Christians and Muslims) cremate their dead on sandalwood logs and scatter the ashes on a river, preferably the Ganges. The Hindu scriptures are written in Sanskrit, the 'Latin' of the North Indian languages. Hinduism is mainly associated with India and Indians. In the past much of South-East Asia shared this faith; even now there are cultural influences from the Hindu periods in places like Indonesia, Cambodia, and Thailand. VIDEO-BASED LISTENING COMPREHENSION Watch the video about Varanasi, India. Access mode: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TYc_nrUxVnw Take notes and be ready to speak about the holiest site for Hindus, Varanasi, which is situated on the banks of the River Ganges. Shinto This religion dates back to 500 BC. Shinto is an ancient Japanese religion, closely tied to nature, which recognizes the existence of various Kami, nature deities. The first two deities, Izanagi and Izanami, gave birth to the Japanese islands and their children became the deities of the various Japanese clans. One of their daughters, Amaterasu (Sun Goddess), is the ancestress of the Imperial Family and is regarded as the chief deity. All the Kami are benign and serve only to sustain and protect. They are not seen as separate from humanity due to sin because humanity is Kami's Child. Followers of Shinto desire peace and believe human life is sacred. They revere the Kami’s creative and harmonizing powers, and aspire to have sincerity or true heart. Morality is based upon that which is of benefit to the group. There are "Four Affirmations" in Shinto: �Содержание • • • • Tradition and family: the family is the main mechanism by which traditions are preserved. Love of nature: nature is sacred and natural objects are to be worshipped as sacred spirits. Physical cleanliness: they must take baths, wash their hands, and rinse their mouth often. "Matsuri": festival which honors the spirits. ENGAGING THE TEXT 14. Describe the pantheon of Hinduism. 15. What is the aim of the teaching in Hinduism? 16. What are the holy sites and sites for pilgrimage of Hindus? 17. What is the caste system? How is it related to the belief of reincarnation? 18. Comment on the pantheon of Shinto. 19. What are the basic principles of Shinto morality? VIDEO-BASED LISTENING COMPREHENSION Watch the video about Religion in Japan. Access mode: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mWRSjieo0CY Be ready to speak about religion in Japan focusing on the main facts, concepts and rituals mentioned in the presentation: 4) Shinto shrines and Buddhist temples 5) written body of doctrines 6) ceremonies and festivals 7) isolated wooden area 8) lucky charms 9) every municipality 10) in the middle of the 6th century 11) influence one another 12) built in open areas 13) architecture of Buddhist temples 14) sacred objects 15) outside garden 16) ancient stones 17) one big bell 18) 108 times 19) symbol of traditional Japanese culture �Содержание SECTION 2. MONOTHEISM AND ATHEISM Vocabulary Vocabulary Exercises Text One. Monotheistic Religions Text Two. Judaism Text Three. Christianity. The Origin of Christianity Text Four. Catholic and Orthodox Churches Text Five. The Russian Orthodox Church and Its History Text Six. Protestantism Text Seven. Islam Text Eight. Atheistic Religions Revision exercises �Содержание VOCABULARY 1. doctrine – вероучение, догмат 2. to indoctrinate smb with / in / against smth – внушать 3. dualism – дуализм, двойственность 4. ecumenic(al) – 1) вселенский, всемирный 2) выступающий за единение всех христиан 5. redemption – искупление, спасение 6. salvation – спасение • to preach salvation • to seek salvation • to bring salvation 7. the Saviour / Redeemer – Спаситель 8. almsgiving – милостыня, пожертвование 9. to consecrate – освящать 10. righteous – благочестивый, добродетельный 11. blissful – блаженный, счастливый 12. rigid – непоколебимый, стойкий 13. commitment to smth/smb – обязательство, приверженность 14. eternal fight between good and evil – вечная борьба добра со злом 15. a proverb / a parable – притча 16. the garden of Eden – Райский сад 17. original sin – первородный грех 18. a deadly / mortal sin – смертный грех 19. resurrection – воскрешение 20. to arise from the dead – воскреснуть, восстать из мертвых e.g. – Christ has arisen! – Truly arisen! 21. anathema – анафема, отлучение от церкви, проклятие �Содержание 22. to anathematize – предать анафеме, отлучить от церкви 23. excommunication – отлучение от церкви 24. a split / a schism [ˈskɪzəm]– раскол 25. dissent – инакомыслие, раскол, сектантство 26. to convert/proselytize – обращать в свою веру 27. a convert/ proselyte – новообращенный 28. apostasy – вероотступничество, измена 29. blasphemy – богохульство 30. extraneous – чуждый �Содержание VOCABULARY EXERCISES 2.1. Give corresponding verbs: Doctrine, redemption, resurrection, anathema, conversion, proselyte, blasphemy, almsgiving, excommunication. 2.2. Match the words with their definitions: a) dualism b) apostasy c) a proselyte d) blasphemy e) anathema f) doctrine g) parable h) monotheism i) split j) rigid k) to consecrate l) almsgiving 1. a ban or curse solemnly pronounced by ecclesiastical authority and accompanied by excommunication; 2. division into different groups, factions, as by discord; 3. a body or system of teaching relating to a particular subject; 4. the doctrine that there are two substances, one spiritual and the other material; two eternally struggling principles, one good and the other evil; 5. a usually short fictitious story that illustrates a moral attitude or a religious principle; 6. impious utterance or action concerning God or sacred things; 7. the doctrine or belief that there is only one God; 8. something (money or food) given freely to relieve the poor; 9. firmly fixed or set, inflexible, strict, or severe; 10. a convert; 11. a total desertion of or departure from one’s religion, principles; 12. to make or declare sacred. 2.3. Translate the sentences from Russian into English: 1. В 1994 году Русская Православная Церковь предала анафеме различные «тоталитарные секты». Членство в них может рассматриваться как вероотступничество. 2. Богохульство в христианстве – это оскорбление имени Бога, Девы Марии, святых, предметов культа. Богохульство в царской России каралось каторжными работами от 6 до 12 лет. 3. 3. В ряде сект обряды сопровождаются состоянием религиозного экстаза, во время которого верующие испытывают иллюзию непосредственного общения со Святым Духом. Это может быть результатом сурового аскетического режима, постов, изнурительных молений, внушения и самовнушения. �Содержание TEXT ONE Monotheistic Religions Major world religions emerged between 600 BC and 600 or 800 AD, had a widespread appeal, and survived by traveling beyond their home cultures. Here listed the monotheistic religions in chronological order of their emergence: Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Sikhism, and Baha’i. These religions are characterized by nameable founders (with legendary elements and historical problems). The main religious focus is laid on Unity of Ultimacy: one personal God (monotheism) or one impersonal Power (monism). In these religions appear canons of scripture (i.e., focal, authoritative writings): the Avesta, the Torah, the Talmud, the Bible, the Qur’an. The pattern of appearing common to all monotheistic religions is the following: • the founder with simple teachings; • with disciples, the doctrine becomes complicated and controversial; • the organization becomes more rigid, and institutions result; • splits occur; • picking up extraneous beliefs and practices. Those religions that arose after 600–800 AD were conscious combinations of existing religions. For example, Sikhism (16th century, India) is a combination of Hinduism and Islam. Baha'i (19th century, Iran) is a combination of all of the world's religions. One of the most ancient monotheistic religions is Zoroastrianism. It began in Persia, 600 BC and is now confined to parts of Iran, Pakistan and India. The followers of it are called Parsees. Their major belief is in the eternal fight between good and evil. When you do good, you help the forces of good in their fight, and vice versa. Parsees worship fire as a symbol of god. Non-believers are never allowed into their temples. A Parsee who marries outside the faith is no longer a Parsee. They believe in the purity of the elements; they will not bury or cremate their dead (because it pollutes the earth and air respectively). Instead they leave the bodies on towers of silence where they are picked clean by vultures! Zoroastrianism was founded by Zarathushtra (Zoroaster) in Persia which followed an aboriginal polytheistic religion at the time. He preached what may have been the first monotheism with a single supreme god, Ahura Mazda. Zoroastrians believe in the dualism of good and evil. It may be a cosmic dualism between Ahura Mazda and an evil spirit of violence and death, Angra Mainyu, or an ethical dualism within the human consciousness. The Zoroastrian holy book is called the Avesta which includes the teachings of Zarathushtra written in a series of five hymns. They are abstract sacred poetry directed towards the worship of the One God, understanding of righteousness and cosmic order, promotion of social justice, and individual choice between good and evil. The rest of the Avesta was written at a later date and deals with rituals, practice of worship, and other traditions of the faith. Zoroastrians worship through prayers and symbolic ceremonies that are conducted before a sacred fire which symbolizes their God. They dedicate their lives to a three-fold path represented by their motto: " Good thoughts, good words, good deeds."The faith does not generally accept converts but this is disputed by some members. �Содержание ENGAGING THE TEXT 1. Explain the meaning of the following concepts: a) Unity of Ultimacy; b) monism; c) to marry outside the faith; d) the dualism of good and evil. 2. Answer the questions: 1) What are the characteristic features of monotheistic religions that distinguish them from polytheism? 2) Trace some of these features in Zoroastrianism. 3) What is “a three-fold path”? 4) Can any person become a Parsee? VIDEO-BASED LISTENING COMPREHENSION Watch the video about Zoroastrianism. Access mode: https://www.youtube.com/watch?reload=9&v=iHVo0V2Oi0U Be ready to retell the text focusing on the main facts, concepts and rituals of Zoroastrianism mentioned in the presentation: Zoroasrianism • Zarathustra (Zoroaster) • the Avesta / the "Gathas" • Ahura Mazda • Asha • Druj • Angira Mainyu • dualistic religion • fire temples • the oldest monotheistic religion • 200 000 followers • the "Parsees" & the "Gabars" �Содержание • a dead body • "Naw-Ruz" & "Yalda" • Yazd • the Ervad, the Mobed & the Dastur • suicidal religion • "Navjote" History • 3500 years ago • Daruis I • Achaemenid (Persian) Empire • Egipt, Pakistan & Greece • Alexander the Great • Parthian Empire • Sassanid Empire • Moslem-Arab Invasion • India �Содержание TEXT TWO Judaism Judaism, one of the three great monotheistic religions, originated amongst the nomadic Hebrew tribes around 1200 BC. The book of Genesis describes the events surrounding the lives of the three patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, with whom God made a covenant. (The term "God" is used here to respect the Jewish prohibition against spelling the name or title of the deity in full). The next leader of the Israelites, Moses, led his people out of captivity in Egypt and received the Law from God. It is likely that Moses was a composite mythological character rather than a real person. After decades of wandering through wilderness, Joshua led the tribes into the Promised Land, driving out the Canaanites through a series of military battles. In the 11th–10th century BC, Samuel established the Israelite kingdom with Saul as its first king. King David established Jerusalem and King Solomon built the First Temple there. In 70 AD, when the Second Temple was destroyed by Roman legions, many Jews anticipated the arrival of the Messiah who would drive the Roman invaders out and restore independence. But Jews were scattered throughout the known world. Their religion was no longer centered in Jerusalem; Jews were prohibited from setting foot there. Judaism became decentralized and stopped seeking converts. The local synagogue became the new center of Jewish life, and authority shifted from the centralized priesthood to local scholars and teachers, giving rise to Rabbinic Judaism. The Jews were scattered throughout the world until 1948 when the state of Israel was formed. Jews believe in one creator who alone is to be worshipped as the absolute ruler of the universe. He monitors people’s activities and rewards good deeds and punishes evil. The Torah was revealed to Moses by God and cannot be changed though God does communicate with the Jewish people through prophets. Jews believe in the inherent goodness of the world and its inhabitants as creations of God and do not require a savior to save them from original sin. They believe they are God’s chosen people and that the Messiah will arrive in the future, gather them into Israel, there will be a general resurrection of the dead, and the Jerusalem Temple will be rebuilt. No savior is needed or is available as an intermediary. Some view Jesus as a great moral teacher. Others see him as a false prophet or as an idol of Christianity. Some sects of Judaism will not even say his name due to the prohibition against saying an idol’s name. The Jews are often referred to as God’s chosen people. This does not mean that they are in any way to be considered superior to other groups. Biblical verses such as Exodus 19:5 simply imply that God has selected Israel to receive and study the Torah, to worship God only, to rest on the Sabbath, and to celebrate the festivals. Jews were not chosen to be better than others; they were simply selected to receive more difficult responsibilities and more onerous punishment if they fail. Judaism combines elements and ideas from Egypt (the story of the young Moses by the Nile, many of the proverbs) and Babylonia (the stone tablets containing the laws received atop a mountain, the Creation, flood stories). The books of the Jewish Bible (known as the Old Testament to Christians and as The Law and The Prophets to the Jews) are composed from a number of sources dating from before 2000 BC to around 250 BC. Another sacred book is the Talmud that �Содержание contains stories, laws, medical knowledge, debates about moral choices, etc. Jews live by a lunar calendar and have many strict dietary rules (e.g. they eat only the kosher food; they don’t eat pork or animals without legs). The language of the liturgy is Hebrew. The holy day is Saturday (Sabbath) (from Friday sunset to Saturday sunset since the Jewish day begins at sunset). Boys reach the status of Bar Mitzvah on their 13th birthday; girls reach Bat Mitzvah on their 12th birthday. This means that they are recognized as adults and are personally responsible to follow the Jewish commandments and laws; they are allowed to lead a religious service; they can sign contracts; they can testify in religious courts; theoretically, they can marry, although the Talmud recommends 18 to 24 as the proper age for marriage. Their single God has the Hebrew name JHWH (no vowels in the Hebrew script) which has an unknown pronunciation but which is usually rendered as Jehovah. This name is supposed to only be pronounced by the high priest on the Day of Atonement (Yom Kippur). There are many sects of Judaism. Hasidic Jews wear 18th century European clothes and have long sideburns. They are very strict in their observance of Jewish Law. Jews are found in most parts of the world but mainly in Israel, USA and Europe. ENGAGING THE TEXT 1. Pronounce the following proper names and give their Russian equivalents: a) Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, Moses, Joshua, Samuel, King Saul, King David, King Solomon; b) Israel, Israelite, Jerusalem, Canaan, Canaanite, Hebrew, Mount Sinai, Jehovah, Old Testament, Genesis, Exodus, the Talmud, the Torah, Bar Mitzvah, Bat Mitzvah, Hasidic Jews, Rabbinic Judaism, the Day of Atonement (Yom Kippur). 2. Give Russian equivalents: a) a composite character; b) he led his people out of captivity; c) decades of wandering through wilderness; d) to be scattered throughout the world; e) they stopped seeking converts; f) they became decentralized; g) the absolute ruler of the universe; h) to monitor people’s activities; i) the inherent goodness of the world; j) an onerous punishment; �Содержание k) the general resurrection of the dead; l) God’s chosen people; m) sideburns; n) the stone tablets. 3. Match the words with their definitions: a) Ten Commandments e) Genesis b) kosher f) nomad c) the Promised Land g) an intermediary d) covenant 1. a member of a tribe that has no permanent abode but moves from one place to another 2. a place believed to hold ultimate happiness 3. the precepts spoken by God to Israel, delivered to Moses on Mount Sinai 4. origin, creation; the first book of the Bible 5. the agreement between God and the ancient Israelites, in which God promised to protect them if they kept His law and were faithful to Him 6. acting as a mediator 7. fit or allowed to be eaten or used according to the dietary or ceremonial laws of Judaism 4. Answer the following questions: 1. What is the origin of Judaism? 2. What do they believe in? 3. What are the main characteristics of the Jewish life? 4. Why do they spell the term of the deity as "God"? 5. What is the Talmud? EXTENDING THE CRITICAL CONTEXT Find information on: I. Significant Jewish symbols: menorah; the Star of David. II. Main Jewish holidays: Yom Kippur, Rosh Hashanah, Passover, Hannukah, etc. III. Western Wall (Wailing Wall), the most popular pilgrimage destination, Judaism’s holiest site. �Содержание VIDEO-BASED LISTENING COMPREHENSION Watch the video presenting the Passover Story. Access mode: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DWyiAzwwLdA Be ready to retell the story. Arrange the ten plagues God sent upon Egypt in the chronological order: • Locusts – Locusts swarm Egypt and eat any remaining crops and food. • Boils – The Egyptian people are plagued by painful boils that cover their bodies. • Darkness – Darkness covers the land of Egypt for three days. • Blood – The waters of Egypt are turned to blood. All the fish die and • • • • • • water becomes unusable. Wild Animals – Wild animals invade Egyptian homes and lands, causing destruction and wrecking devastation. Gnats or Lice – Masses of gnats or lice invade Egyptian homes and plague the Egyptian people. Hail – Severe weather destroys Egyptian crops and beats down upon them. Death of the Firstborn – The firstborn of every Egyptian family is killed. Even the firstborn of Egyptian animals die. Frogs – Hordes of frogs swarm the land of Egypt. Pestilence – Egyptian livestock is struck down with disease. �Содержание TEXT THREE Christianity. The Origin of Christianity Christianity started out as a breakaway sect of Judaism nearly 2000 years ago. Jesus, the son of the Virgin Mary and her husband Joseph, but conceived through the Holy Spirit, was bothered by many of the laws and practices of his native Jewish faith and began preaching a different message of God and religion. During his travels he was joined by twelve disciples who followed him in his journeys and learned from him. He performed many miracles during this time and related many of his teachings in the form of parables. Among his best known sayings are to "love thy neighbor" and "turn the other cheek." At one point he revealed that he was the Son of God sent to Earth to save humanity from our sins. This he did by being crucified on the cross for his teachings. He then rose from the dead and appeared to his disciples and told them to go forth and spread his message. Since Christianity and Judaism share the same history up to the time of Jesus Christ, they are very similar in many of their core beliefs. There are two primary differences. One is that Christians believe in original sin and that Jesus died in our place to save us from that sin. The other is that Jesus was fully human and fully God and as the Son of God is part of the Holy Trinity: God the Father, His Son, and the Holy Spirit. All Christians believe in heaven and that those who sincerely repent their sins before God will be saved and join Him in heaven. Three centuries after the crucifixion of Jesus Christ, His followers had multiplied exponentially. As a community, the Christians were well organized, tightly knit, rich and influential. But they were still a minority in the pagan Roman Empire, distrusted by the government. In those days, Rome’s official religion was sun worship – the cult of Sol Invictus, or the Invincible Sun. The early Christians obeyed their bishops, avoided military duties and refused to participate in pagan rituals for the good of the empire. In short, they disobeyed imperial authority. Repeated persecutions however failed to make them conform. It merely created Christian martyrs which inspired further opposition. The destiny of Christianity changed when the Roman emperor Constantine I became Christian. His decision changed the world forever. In 325 A.D., he decided to unify Rome under a single religion. Constantine favoured Christianity for several reasons. Firstly, he realized that the persecutions had failed against the Christians. Instead it only resulted in disharmony which he disliked immensely. Secondly, he had a deep admiration for the organization and values of the Christians. He believed that they would bring about unity to the Roman Empire. Christianity and Pagan Traditions Due to the power and influence of paganism, Constantine proceeded with caution to Christianize the empire. By fusing pagan symbols, dates, and rituals into the growing Christian tradition, Constantine created a kind of hybrid religion that was acceptable to both parties. Through the Church, Constantine could control the Christians. The bishops now found themselves serving as Constantine’s principal advisors and following his will. Many bishops actually owed their positions to Constantine. In return, Constantine gave them religious and judicial powers. However, the side effect of this worldly involvement on the Church and vice versa disgusted some Christians. They fled to the deserts to begin a hermitic life, leading to the rise of monasticism. Constantine himself was baptized on his deathbed: this was a common practice to ensure entrance into heaven. The Bible, as we know it today, was "collated" over several centuries, and the process was not finished during Constantine's lifetime. The New Testament as we know it today was not finalized until the late 4th century. It is a product of man. Man �Содержание created it as a historical record of tumultuous times, and it has evolved through countless translations, additions, and revisions. History has never had a definitive version of the book. Jesus Christ is a historical figure of staggering influence, perhaps the most enigmatic and inspirational leader the world has ever seen. As the prophesied Messiah, Jesus toppled kings, inspired millions, and founded new philosophies. As a descendant of the lines of King Solomon and King David, Jesus possessed a rightful claim to the throne of the King of the Jews. Understandably, His life was recorded by many followers across the land. Several gospels were considered for the New Testament, and yet only a few were chosen for inclusion – by Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. The vestiges of pagan religion in Christian symbology are undeniable. Egyptian sun disks became the halos of Christian saints. Pictograms of Isis nursing her miraculously conceived son Horus became the blueprint for our modern images of the Virgin Mary nursing Baby Jesus. And virtually all the elements of the Christian ritual – the miter, the altar, the doxology, and communion, the act of "God-eating" – were taken directly from earlier pagan mystery religions. Originally Christianity honored the Jewish Sabbath of Saturday, but Constantine shifted it to coincide with the pagan’s veneration day of the sun. To this day, most churchgoers attend services on Sunday morning with no idea that they are there on account of the pagan sun god’s weekly tribute – Sunday. Eliminating Paganism By officially endorsing Jesus as the Son of God, Constantine turned Jesus into a deity, whose power was unchallengeable. This not only precluded further pagan challenges to Christianity, but now the followers of Christ were able to redeem themselves only via the established sacred channel – the Roman Catholic Church. As part of the Vatican’s campaign to eradicate pagan religions and convert the masses to Christianity, the Church launched a smear campaign against the pagan gods and goddesses, recasting their divine symbols as evil. This is very common in times of turmoil. A newly emerging power will take over the existing symbols and degrade them over time in an attempt to erase their meaning. In the battle between the pagan symbols and Christian symbols, the pagans lost; Poseidon’s trident became the devil’s pitchfork, the wise crone’s pointed hat became the symbol of a witch, and Venus’s pentacle became a sign of the devil. The traditional long-stemmed cross is considered to be Christian, but initially there was a square cross – with four arms of equal length – which predated Christianity by fifteen hundred years. This kind of cross carried none of the Christian connotations of crucifixion associated with the longer-stemmed Latin Cross, originated by Romans as a torture device: "cross" and "crucifix" came from the Latin verb cruciare – to torture. The equal-armed crosses are considered peaceful crosses. Their square configurations make them impractical for use in crucifixion, and their balanced vertical and horizontal elements convey a natural union of male and female. Eliminating the Sacred Feminine Christianity was more open to women, especially in the earliest years. However, women disappeared from leadership roles as the church hierarchy developed. Over centuries the world was converted from matriarchal paganism to patriarchal Christianity by waging a campaign of propaganda that demonized the sacred feminine, obliterating the goddess from modern religion forever. Nobody could deny the enormous good the modern Church did in today’s troubled world, and yet the Church had a deceitful and violent history. Their brutal crusade to ‘reeducate’ the pagan and feminine-worshipping religions spanned three centuries, employing horrific methods. The Catholic Inquisition published the book that arguably could be called the most blood-soaked publication in human history – The Witches' Hammer – that indoctrinated the world to "the dangers of freethinking women" and instructed the clergy how to locate, torture, and destroy them. Those deemed "witches" by the Church included all female scholars, priestesses, gypsies, mystics, nature lovers, herb gatherers, and any women "suspiciously attuned to the natural world.” Midwives also were killed for their heretical practice of using medical knowledge to ease the pain of childbirth—a suffering, the Church claimed, that was God's rightful punishment for Eve’s partaking of the Apple of Knowledge, thus giving birth to the idea of Original Sin. During three hundred years of witch hunts, the Church �Содержание executed more than 40,000 men and women. It wasn't all the Catholic Church: many were executed by the state or by Protestants. The propaganda and bloodshed had worked. Women, once celebrated as an essential half of spiritual enlightenment, had been banished from the temples of the world. There were no female Orthodox, Catholic or Islamic clerics. ENGAGING THE TEXT 1. Give Russian equivalents to the following word combinations: a) a breakaway sect; b) to perform miracles; c) to multiply exponentially; d) to be acceptable to both parties; e) deathbed; f) to topple kings; g) miter; h) doxology; i) tribute; j) Eve’s partaking of the Apple of Knowledge. 2. Explain the meaning of the following words: o) to preach e) turmoil i) to predate p) communion f) to collate j) to span q) a midwife g) to preclude k) a bloodshed r) veneration h) to eradicate l) to banish 3. Answer the questions: 1) What do the Christians believe in? 2) Who played the most significant role in converting Europe to Christianity? 3) Who collated the Bible? How many gospels are included in the New Testament? Enumerate them. 4) What are vestiges of paganism in Christianity? 5) What was the status of femininity in Christianity in the Middle Ages? EXTENDING THE CRITICAL CONTEXT I. Find the images of various Christian crosses, try to explain their symbolism. II. Find information about the major Christian holidays: Christmas (Xmas); Baptism of the Lord / Epiphany / Theophany; Easter; Whitsunday. III. Think of the cases when religious rites live along with heathen worldview and traditions (holidays, beliefs). IV. Comment on the following quotations: Judge Nicholas Rémy: "[It is] not unreasonable that this scum of humanity, [witches], should be drawn chiefly from the feminine sex." Judge Joseph Klaits: T " he Devil uses them so, because he knows that women love carnal pleasures, and he means to bind them to his allegiance by such agreeable provocations." �Содержание VIDEO-BASED LISTENING COMPREHENSION Watch the video presenting the story of Christianity. Access mode: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pKr2G5fYdi8 Write down the story of Christianity answering the following questions: 1. Where is Bethlehem located? 2. What did Jesus study when he grew up in the town of Nazareth? 3. What makes up the beginning of the Bible’s New Testament? 4. What convinced followers that Jesus was the son of God? 5. What did Jesus educate the first Christians about? 6. Who are the Apostles? 7. Why did political and religious leaders view Jesus as a threat? 8. When and where was Jesus arrested? 9. What did Jesus’s followers do after he died? 10. When did Jesus rise from the dead? 11. What do Christians call this event? 12. When did Jesus rise up into heaven? 13. Had Paul ever met Jesus? 14. Where did Paul’s travels take him? 15. Why were many Christians persecuted, or mistreated, by the Romans? 16. What happened to Peter the Apostle and Paul? 17. When did Roman emperor Constantine proclaim religious tolerance for all religions throughout the Roman Empire? 18. How many followers of Christianity are in the world today? Get ready for the sight translation of the following text: Как появилось христианство В середине XIII в. до н. э. на территорию Палестины (Palestine, HolyLand) из иорданских (Jordanian) степей пришли кочевые племена. Но там они не задержались и отправились в Египет. Через некоторое время евреи все же вернулись обратно. В Библии этот сюжет присутствует. Иосиф в качестве раба попадает в Египет, а Моисей выводит свой народ из плена на землю обетованную. Филистимляне (Philistines), персы (Persians), Александр Македонский (Alexander III of Macedon) и, наконец, римляне захватывали еврейский народ. После смерти Юлия Цезаря к власти в Иудее (Judea) приходит Ирод Великий (Herod the Great). Это был жестокий по отношению к местному населению правитель. Евреи все больше чувствовали над собой римское господство. Это был действительно переломный период в их истории. Поэтому идея мессии, Спасителя набирала популярность. Иудаизм оказал колоссальное влияние на формирование христианства. Но не единственное. Благодаря Александру Македонскому греческий мир впитал в себя восточные культы. Так, был широко распространен культ древнеегипетских богов Озириса (Osiris [ ]) и Исиды (Isis [ ] ). Озирис был убит своим врагом, но преданная жена Исида воскресила его. Смерть – воскрешение этого �Содержание бога – одна из главных идей древней мифологии. До сих пор сохранились статуи Исиды, часто изображаемой с маленьким ребенком на руках – сыном ее и Озириса. Персидские солдаты поклонялись богу Солнца Митре (Mitra). Позднее этот культ распространился в римской армии. Множество религиозных верований существовало в Римской империи: примитивные фетишизм и анимизм, олимпийские боги, религиозная философия, восточные культы. Но именно христианство смогло стать главной религией, доступной для всех. Не было ограничений ни по национальному признаку, ни по финансовому состоянию. Одна из главных идей Евангелия – признание за всеми людьми равных прав и возможность исповедовать одну религию. Однако основа нового учения, Евангелие, не так уж однозначна. Каждый из апостолов-евангелистов по-своему описывал жизнь Иисуса Христа. Что касается основных моментов, то разницы нет. Дева Мария в браке с Иосифом родила от Святого Духа Христа и, спасаясь от Ирода, бежала в Египет. Христос начинает вести свои проповеди в Галилее (Galilee [ ]), у него появляется множество учеников, из которых он выбирает себе 12. Один из них, Иуда, предает его. После суда, произведенного Понтием Пилатом (Pontius Pilate [ ]), Иисус Христос был распят, а затем воскрес. Апостолы разнесли его учение по всему миру. Прежде всего, нужно сказать, что Евангелие от Иоанна (the Gospel According to John) сильно отличается от трех других, написанных Матфеем, Марком и Лукой. Иоанн, к примеру, сообщает о трех вхождениях Иисуса в Иерусалим вместо одного, о котором пишут остальные. Разные точки зрения существуют относительно пути, который проделал Христос в Галилее. Тем не менее, это не значит, что под евангельским сюжетом нет никакой реальной основы. О Христе писали и древние историки: Иосиф Флавий (Titus Flavius Josephus [ ]), Тацит (Publius Cornelius Tacitus [ ]), Светоний (Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus). Кроме того, некоторые персонажи евангельской истории – известные исторические личности. Одна из самых популярных – Понтий Пилат. М.А. Булгаков в своем романе «Мастер и Маргарита» показал пятого прокуратора Иудеи как уставшего одинокого человека, который не смог избавить от казни «бродячего философа» и в наказание долго страдал от этого. Конечно, все, что написано в Библии, ученые подвергают критическому анализу. Но в том, что в основе сюжета лежали реальные исторические события, сейчас мало кто сомневается. �Содержание TEXT FOUR Catholic and Orthodox Churches Roman Catholicism The Roman Catholic Church, with 980 million followers, is the largest Christian church in the world. It has had a profound effect on the development of Western civilization and has been responsible for introducing Christianity in many parts of the world. Church organization is strictly hierarchical. The Pope in Rome is the spiritual leader of all Roman Catholics. He administers church affairs through bishops and priests. Only men can enter the priesthood; women who wish to enter holy orders can become nuns. Members accept the gospel of Jesus Christ and the teachings of the Bible, as well as the church’s interpretations of these. The basic form of worship is the mass, which celebrates the sacrament of the Eucharist. The Holy Eucharist (also called Holy Communion) is a sacrament (mystery) through which the invisible Christ is thought to grant communion with him. Believers are given a bit of bread to eat, which is received as the body of Christ, and a sip of wine or grape juice, understood as his blood. The body and blood of Christ are seen as the spiritual nourishment of the faithful, that which gives them eternal life in the midst of earthly life. The other six sacraments are baptism, confirmation, penance, ordination, matrimony, and anointing of the sick. Catholics are traditionally encouraged to confess their sins privately to a priest before taking communion. After hearing the confession, the priest pronounces forgiveness and blessing over the penitent, or prescribes a penance. In 1962, the Second Vatican Council discussed the measures to update and energize the Church. Many of the changes involved the conduct of the mass. It was recommended to translate the liturgy into the local languages, because people do not understand Latin. Priests were instructed to deliver sermons during Sunday and holy day masses. Greater use of sacred music was encouraged and not just formal organ and choir offerings. As a result, entirely new forms appeared, such as informal folk masses – with spiritual folk songs sung to guitar accompaniment. Eastern Orthodoxy With over 200 million followers, the Orthodox Eastern Church is the second largest Christian community in the world. In 1054, the East-West Schism took place, an event that separated the Byzantine and Roman churches. The Eastern and Western churches had long been estranged over doctrinal issues such as the relationship of the Holy Spirit to the Father and the Son. The Eastern Church resented the Roman enforcement of clerical celibacy and the limitation of the right of confirmation to the bishop. There were also jurisdictional disputes between Rome and Constantinople, including Rome’s assertion of papal primacy. In 1054, Pope Leo IX and the patriarch of Constantinople Michael Cerularius excommunicated each other. This event marked the final break between the two churches. The Eastern Orthodox Church is the largest single religious faith in Belarus, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Georgia, Greece, Macedonia, Moldova, Montenegro, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Ukraine. Relations between the Orthodox churches and Roman Catholicism have improved since the Second Vatican Council (1962–1965). �Содержание ENGAGING THE TEXT 1) How is the Roman Catholic Church organized? 2) What are the seven sacraments of Catholicism? 3) What measures have been taken to update and energize the Catholic Church? 4) When and why did the East-West Schism take place? 5) Which countries are predominantly Eastern Orthodox Christian? VIDEO-BASED LISTENING COMPREHENSION Watch the video presentation about the main differences between the Roman Catholic and Orthodox Christianity. Access mode: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qdr7u6IP6sg Speak about 5 main points of difference between Catholic and Orthodox Christianity: 1. The Figure of Pope 2. The Involvement of Children 3. The Idea of Purgatory 4. Liturgical Revision 5. Fasting Tradition �Содержание TEXT FIVE The Russian Orthodox Church and Its History The Orthodox Church is the largest denomination in Russia. It is organized in a hierarchical structure. The lowest level of organization, which normally would be a single building and its attendees, headed by a priest who acts as Father superior (настоятель), constitute a parish. All parishes in a geographical region belong to an eparchy (equivalent to a Western diocese). Eparchies are governed by bishops (archiereus, архиерей). There are over 260 Russian Orthodox eparchies worldwide. Church membership is estimated at over 60 million people. The highest level of authority is vested in the Bishops' Council (Архиерейский Собор). In the periods between the Councils the highest administrative powers are exercised by the Holy Synod, which includes seven permanent members and is chaired by the Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia Since 2009, the Russian Orthodox Church has been led by His holiness Patriarch Kirill (Cyril) of Moscow and All Russia, the 16th patriarch in its history. According to tradition, St. Andrew the First Called, while preaching the gospel, stopped at the Kievan hills to bless the future city of Kiev. The fact that Russia had among her neighbors a powerful Christian state, the Byzantine Empire, very much contributed to the spread of Christianity in it. The south of Russia was blessed with the work of Sts Cyril and Methodius Equal to the Apostles, the Illuminators of the Slavs. In 954 Princess Olga of Kiev was baptized. All this paved the way for the greatest events in the history of the Russian people, namely, the baptism of Olga’s grandson Prince Vladimir and the Baptism of Russia in 988. While Russia lay under Mongol rule from the 13th through the 15th century, the Russian church enjoyed a favored position, obtaining immunity from taxation. This period saw a remarkable growth of monasticism. The Monastery of the Caves (Pecherska Lavra) in Kiev, founded in the mid-11th century by the ascetics St. Anthony and St. Theodosius, was superseded as the foremost religious centre by the Monastery of the Holy Trinity, which was founded in the mid-14th century by St. Sergius of Radonezh (in what is now the city of Sergiev Posad). It is in this glorious monastery that Andrei Rublev developed his marvelous talent at icon-painting. Monasteries played a tremendous role in Russia. The greatest service they did to the Russian people, apart from their purely spiritual work, was that they were major centers of education. In particular, monasteries recorded in their chronicles all the major historical events in the life of the Russian people. Icon-painting and literary art were flourishing in monasteries. They were also those who translated into Russian various theological, historical and literary works. Monasteries made a great contribution to the preservation of the Russian national self-consciousness and identity during the Tatar yoke and in the times of Western influences. In the mid-17th century the Russian patriarch Nikon attempted to establish the primacy of the Orthodox Church over the state in Russia, and he also undertook a thorough revision of Russian Orthodox texts and rituals to bring them into accord with the rest of Eastern Orthodoxy. Nikon was deposed in 1666 by tsar Alexis, but the Russian church retained his reforms and anathematized those who continued to oppose them; the latter became known as Old Believers (Old Ritualists, старообрядцы) and formed a vigorous body of dissenters within the Russian Orthodox Church for the next two centuries. In 1721, Tsar Peter the Great abolished the patriarchate of Moscow and replaced it with the Holy Synod, which was modeled after the state-controlled synods of the Lutheran church in Sweden and Prussia and was tightly controlled by the state. �Содержание In November 1917, following the collapse of the tsarist government, a council of the Russian Orthodox Church reestablished the patriarchate and elected the metropolitan Tikhon as patriarch. St. Tikhon of Moscow exerted every effort to calm the destructive passions kindled up by the revolution. For Bolsheviks who came to power in 1917 the Russian Orthodox Church was an ideological enemy. This is why so many bishops, thousands of clergymen, monks and nuns as well as lay people were subjected to brutal repressions. The new Soviet government soon declared the separation of church and state and nationalized all church-held lands. These administrative measures were followed by brutal state-sanctioned persecutions, the destruction of churches, and the arrest and execution of many clerics. In 1927, in order to secure the survival of the church, Metropolitan Sergius formally expressed his "loyalty" to the Soviet government and henceforth refrained from criticizing the state in any way. This attitude of loyalty, however, provoked more divisions in the church itself: inside Russia, a number of faithful opposed Sergius, and abroad, the Russian metropolitans of America and Western Europe severed their relations with Moscow. The catastrophic course of combat in the beginning of World War II forced Stalin to mobilize all the national resources for defense, including the Russian Orthodox Church as the people's moral force. Without delay churches were opened for services, and clergy including bishops were released from prisons. The Russian Church did not limit itself to giving spiritual and moral support to the motherland in danger. It also rendered material aid by providing funds for all kinds of things up to army uniform. Its greatest contribution, however, was expressed in financing the St. Dimitry Donskoy Tank Column and the St. Alexander Nevsky Squadron. Between 1945 and 1959, the official organization of the church was greatly expanded, although individual members of the clergy were occasionally arrested and exiled. The celebrations devoted to the Millennium of the Baptism of Russia, which acquired a national importance, gave a fresh impetus to church-state relations and compelled the powers to begin a dialogue with the Church, building these relations on the basis of recognition of the great historical role it had played and its contribution to the formation of the nation's moral traditions. Beginning in the late 1980s, under M. Gorbachev, the new political and social freedoms resulted in many church buildings being returned to the church, to be restored by local parishioners. The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 furthered the spiritual progress. ENGAGING THE TEXT 1. Read the following words and word combinations, give their Russian equivalents: a) The Holy Synod; St. Andrew the First Called; the Byzantine Empire; Sts. Cyril and Methodius Equal to the Apostles, the Illuminators of Slavs; Princess Olga; the Millennium of the Baptism of Russia; the Monastery of the Caves; St. Theodosius; the Monastery of the Holy Trinity; St. Sergius of Radonezh. b) Diocese; to preach the gospel; to pave the way; to obtain immunity from taxation; monasticism; ascetic; foremost religious center; to establish the primacy of church over the state; to be subjected to brutal repressions. �Содержание 2. Answer the following questions: 1) When did the Slavs adopt Christianity? Who played the major role in it? Was it a peaceful process? 2) What role did the monasteries play in the spiritual and cultural development of the society? 3) What were the reasons and the outcomes of the dissent in the mid-17th century? 4) What happened to Russian Orthodoxy after 1917? 3. Comment on the concluding statement of the text. Do you agree with the assumption that the last three decades have been the period of “spiritual progress” in Russia? Or do you support those who think that “today, 30 years after the “second baptism of Russia,” there is good cause to say: religious revival, as envisaged in the late 1980s, has failed to materialize. On the one hand, thousands of churches and hundreds of monasteries have opened, but on the other, there are no apparent changes for the better in public morality and mentality. Crime is rising; Russia has the largest prison population in the world and there is a growing alienation and estrangement between the people”. Support your opinion with arguments and examples. EXTENDING THE CRITICAL CONTEXT Find more information on the following topics and make presentations: I. Adoption of Christianity in Russia. Paganism and Christianity. II. Old Ritualists. III. Rituals and holidays of the Russian Orthodox Church today. IV. Orthodox Church in your region / city / village. �Содержание TEXT SIX Protestantism There is a multitude of forms of Christianity which have developed either because of disagreements on dogma, adaptation to different cultures, or simply personal taste. For this reason there can be a great difference between the various forms of Christianity; they may even seem like different religions to some people. Protestantism is a movement within Christianity, representing a splitting away from the Roman Catholic Church during the mid-to-late Renaissance in Europe – a period known as the Protestant Reformation. Commonly considered one of the three major branches of Christianity, the term "Protestant" represents a diverse range of theological and social perspectives, churches and related organizations. Originally, "protestant" meant "to be a witness for something" rather than "to be against something", as the current popular interpretation of the word seems to imply. Protestant is used as the collective name for a movement of separation from the Roman Catholic Church, the beginning of which is connected with the public disputes raised by Martin Luther. Some Western, non-Catholic, groups are labeled as Protestant (such as the Religious Society of Friends, for example), even if the sect acknowledges no historical connection to Luther, Calvin or the Roman Catholic Church. In German-speaking and Scandinavian lands, the word "Protestant" still refers to Lutheran churches in contrast to Reformed churches, while the common designation for all churches originating from the Reformation is "Evangelical". As an intellectual movement, Protestantism grew out of the Renaissance and universities, attracting some learned intellectuals, as well as politicians, professionals, and skilled tradesmen and artisans. The new technology of the printing press allowed Protestant ideas to spread rapidly, as well as aiding in the dissemination of translations of the Bible in native tongues. Nascent Protestant social ideals of liberty of conscience, and individual freedom, were formed through continuous confrontation with the authority of Rome, and the hierarchy of the Catholic priesthood. A protestant is a member or adherent of any denomination of the Western Christian church that rejects papal authority and some fundamental Roman Catholic doctrines, and believes in justification by faith. The Protestants characterized the dogma concerning the Pope as Christ's representative head of the Church on earth as a denial that Christ is the only mediator between God and man. Protestants believed that the Roman Catholic Church obscured the teaching of the Bible, and undermined its authority, by following tradition, regardless of whether it over-ruled or added to the doctrines of Scripture. The Protestants characterized the Roman Catholic concept of meritorious works, of penance and indulgences, masses for the dead, the treasury of the merits of saints and martyrs, a ministering priesthood who hears confessions, and purgatory, as reliance upon other means for justification, in addition to faith in Jesus and his work on the cross. Most Protestant churches fulfill similar rituals to Catholicism – chiefly baptism, communion, and matrimony – frequently varying or de-formalizing the rites. Protestants often refer to specific Protestant churches and groups as denominations to imply that they are differently named parts of the whole church. This "invisible unity" is assumed to be imperfectly displayed, visibly: some denominations are less accepting of others, and the basic orthodoxy of some is questioned by most of the others. Individual denominations also have formed over very subtle theological differences. Other denominations are simply regional or ethnic expressions of the same beliefs. The actual number of distinct denominations is hard to calculate. According to the World Christian Encyclopedia �Содержание (2001) by David B. Barrett, there are "over 33,000 denominations in 238 countries". Every year there is a net increase of around 270 to 300 denominations. Various ecumenical movements have attempted cooperation or reorganization of Protestant churches, according to various models of union, but divisions continue to outpace unions. Most denominations share common beliefs in the major aspects of the Christian faith, while differing in many secondary doctrines. General protestant families of denominations are the following (tens of thousands of individual denominations exist); some of these groups do not consider themselves as part of the Protestant movement, but are generally viewed as such by scholars and the public at large: • Anabaptist and Baptist • Anglican / Episcopalian • Calvinist / Reformed and Presbyterian • Lutheran • Methodist / Wesleyan and the Holiness movement • Pentecostal and Charismatic • Quakerism • Restoration movement • Non-denominational There are about 590 million Protestants worldwide. These include 170 million in North America, 160 million in Africa, 120 million in Europe, 70 million in Latin America, 60 million in Asia, and 10 million in Oceania. Nearly 27 % of all Christians today are Protestants. Protestantism in Britain There are two established or state churches in Britain: the Church of England, or Anglican Church as it is also called, and the Church of Scotland, or ‘Kirk’. In 1533, the English king, Henry VIII, broke away from Rome and declared himself head of the Church in England. His reason was political: the Pope's refusal to allow him to divorce his wife, who had failed to produce a son. Apart from this administrative break, the Church at first remained more Catholic than Protestant. However, during the next two centuries when religion was a vital political issue in Europe, the Church of England became more Protestant in belief as well as organization. Ever since 1534, the monarch has been Supreme Governor of the Church of England. No one may take the throne who is not a member of the Church of England. All Anglican clergy must take an oath of allegiance to the Crown. Thus, Church and Crown in England are closely entwined, with mutual bonds of responsibility. The Church of England is frequently considered to be a 'broad' church because it includes a wide variety of belief and practice. Traditionally there have been two poles in membership, the Evangelicals and the Anglo-Catholics. The Evangelicals, who have become proportionately stronger in recent years, give greater emphasis to basing all faith and practice on the Bible. The Anglo-Catholics give greater weight to Church tradition and Catholic practices. There is an uneasy relationship between the two wings of the Church, which sometimes breaks into open hostility. However, a large number of church-goers either feel no particular loyalty to any of these traditions, or feel more comfortable somewhere between these poles. The believers observing all religious practices and attending churches is only one person from ninety. The majority deals with church only during personal crisis or the main vital events (a birth, the conclusion of a marriage, death). The Church of England is above all things a church of compromise. It is, in the words of one journalist, “a Church where there has traditionally been space on the pew for heretics and unbelievers, doubters and skeptics”. It fudges issues where it can, to keep its broad body of believers together. Most of its members are happy with the �Содержание arrangement. This has been particularly true in the two areas of greatest controversy within the Church since the mid-1980s. First, the ordination of women in 1992. (The first woman cleric of Anglican church appeared in 1995, and by 1998 there were already about 1900 of them). Second, the ordination of homosexuals (and the acceptance of homosexuals already in the priesthood). In both cases the modernists are ranged against the conservatives. Having accepted women priests, a fresh controversy arose over the question of homosexuality with, if anything, even greater vehemence. The essence of the debate is: biblical and traditional values versus contemporary social ones. The conservatives claim that for 2,000 years of biblical analysis there was a conclusion that homosexual sex is outside the will and purpose of God. The modernists argue that it is ludicrous to pick one out of many culturally specific prohibitions in the Old Testament, and that a judgmental posture excludes Christians who quite sincerely have a different sexual orientation. In Scotland the Church, or Kirk, vehemently rejected the idea of bishops, following a more Calvinist Protestant tradition. Its churches are plain. There is no altar, only a table, and the emphasis is on the pulpit, where the Gospel is preached. The Kirk is more democratic than the Anglican Church. Although each Kirk is assigned a minister, it also elects its own 'elders'. Unlike the Church of England, the Church of Scotland is subject neither to the Crown nor to Parliament, and takes pride in its independence from state authority, for which it fought in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. In keeping with its democratic nature, it admits women as well as men to the ministry. Protestantism in the USA The First Amendment to the Constitution of the United States prohibits an established national religion and protects the individual’s right to practice the religion of his or her choice. “Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion or prohibiting the free exercise thereof”. The immigrants who first came to America from countries all over the world brought a variety of religions. Many came with the express purpose of establishing communities where they could practice their own form of worship without interference or fear of persecution. In most western societies, modernization has been accompanied by a decline in religious observance. America, in contrast, has remained unusually religious. Church buildings representing an astonishing variety of faiths line residential streets. Sunday morning traffic is typically congested with people driving to Sunday school and church. Most bookstores report a tremendous volume of sales of books about Christianity and Christian living. Bibles continue to be the nation’s best-selling books. • More than nine out of ten Americans say they believe in God. • More than four out of ten attend church or synagogue at least once a week. • Two thirds are members of a local church or synagogue. Interest in religion is high even among young people, whose religious activity has typically been less regular than that of their parents and grandparents. A Gallup poll indicates that young Americans are far more religious than their counterparts in most other countries. Religion in America today is built primarily on the structure of Protestantism, Catholicism, and Judaism. Within each of these groups there is great diversity. Among Protestants alone, there are 186 different organizations. Besides, there are about 1,500 major and minor sectarian churches. Among these sects are established groups such as the Quakers (Religious Society of Friends), Mormons (The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints), Jehovah's Witnesses. Once peripheral sects, now they are considered part of mainstream Protestantism. Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) was founded by George Fox in England in the seventeenth century, who preached a doctrine of Inner Light, and inveighed against organized churches. The Friends believe in reliance on the Inner Light, the voice of God's Holy Spirit experienced within each person. Meetings are characterized by quiet �Содержание meditation without ritual or sermon. Quakers are active in peace, education, and social welfare movements. They refuse to bear arms or take oaths. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (Mormons) was founded by Joseph Smith, who received an angelic vision telling him the location of golden plates containing God’s revelation; this he published in 1830 as the Book of Mormon. Smith and his followers migrated from Palmyra, N. Y., to Ohio, Missouri, and finally Illinois, where Smith was killed by a mob in 1844. In 1846–1847, under Brigham Young, the Mormons trekked to Utah, where they founded Salt Lake City. Mormons accept the Bible as well as the Mormon sacred scriptures but diverge significantly from orthodox Christianity, especially in their assertion that God exists in three distinct entities as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. They believe that faithful members of the church will inherit eternal life as gods. Other unique doctrines include the belief in preexisting souls waiting to be born and in salvation of the dead through retroactive baptism. Public services are conservative. Mormons have a temple for certain secret ceremonies, including baptism for the dead. The Mormon Church became notorious for its practice of polygamy, though polygamy was officially sanctioned only in 1852–1890. Members of the Mormon Church abstain from alcohol and tobacco and believe in community and self-reliance. In the early 21st century, the church had a worldwide membership of nearly 10 million, swelled yearly by the missionary work usually required (for two years) of all male members. Jehovah's Witnesses was founded by Charles T. Russell in the United States in the late nineteenth century. The followers believe in the imminent second coming of Christ and the potential salvation of mortal souls during the millennium. All members are ministers who proselytize their faith with door-to-door missionary work. Members refuse service in the armed forces, will not salute national flags or participate in politics, will not accept blood transfusions (but will accept all other forms of medical treatment), and discourage smoking, drunkenness, and gambling. ENGAGING THE TEXT Engaging the text 1. What were the reasons of the Protestant Reformation? Was it a peaceful process? 2. What did the Reformation change in religious practices? 3. Name the largest Protestant denominations. 4. What are the peculiarities of Protestantism in Britain? 5. What are the major points of controversy in Anglican Church today? 6. Why did the USA become a predominantly Protestant country? 7. Dwell on the denominations that emerged in the US as sects but now are treated as mainstream Protestant. �Содержание EXTENDING THE CRITICAL CONTEXT I. Were the religions historically peaceful to each other in Great Britain and the USA? Use the books on American and British history. II. Are there Protestant denominations in your country / region? How active are they? How are they treated by the majority? III. Do you think that religious pluralism offers different communities a way to make sense of the world they inhabit? Or is it largely responsible for intercommunal discord? Which do you think is true of Britain? The USA? Which is true of your country? VIDEO-BASED LISTENING COMPREHENSION Watch the video about the Anglican Church. Access mode: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aqEn7_SoEt8 Be ready to speak about the history of the Anglican Church. Use the following as the outline of your story. 1) King Henry VIII; 2) Conflict with Pope; 3) Catherine of Aragon; 4) Anne Boleyn; 5) 1527; 6) Reasons why Pope refused to give Henry VIII a divorce; 7) 1534 – Act of Supremacy; 8) Thomas More; 9) Weakening of the Catholic Church; 10) Henry’s complicated family tree; 11) “Bloody Mary”; 12) 1558 – death of Mary; 13) Elizabeth (Protestant) – Anglican Church. �Содержание VIDEO-BASED LISTENING COMPREHENSION Watch the video “Leap of Faith: Church of England en route to extinction”. Access mode: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dEPp4xeFZPA Be ready to discuss the current state of the Anglican Church focusing on the following items: 1) Potential threats. 2) Privileges of the Anglican Church. 3) Decline of worshippers who come to the Anglican Church. 4) Fading away of the Anglican Church. 5) Conversion to Islam. 6) Prince of Wales wants to be the leader of faiths if he becomes the king of England. 7) Rejection of women bishops and disapproval of gay marriages by the Anglican Church. 8) Separation of church and state. 9) The lowest rate of church attendance in Europe. VIDEO-BASED LISTENING COMPREHENSION Watch the video about 16 ways to greet Jehovah’s Witnesses. Access mode: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Afk9p3LhrtA What are different ways to treat religious missionaries? Select the way you will most probably use. Can you think of any other ways? �Содержание TEXT SEVEN Islam Islam (‫ )ﻹﺳﻼم‬was founded by the prophet Muhammad, who received the holy scriptures of Islam, the Quran [kɔː'ra:n], from Allah (the One True God) 610 A.D. Islam (Arabic for "submission to God") maintains that Mohammed is the last in a long line of holy prophets, preceded by Adam, Abraham (Ibrahim), Moses (Musa), and Jesus (Isa). As a young child, the angel Jebreel visited Muhammad, ripped his chest open, removed his heart, extracted a blood clot from it, and returned him to normalcy. While still young, he was sent into the desert to be raised by a foster family. This was a common practice at the time. He was orphaned at the age of 6 and brought up by his uncle. As a child, he worked as a shepherd. He was taken on a caravan to Syria by his uncle at the age of 9 (or perhaps 12). Later, as a youth, he was employed as a camel driver on the trade routes between Syria and Arabia. He met people of different religious beliefs on his travels, and was able to observe and learn about Judaism, Christianity and the indigenous Pagan religions. After marriage, he was able to spend more time in meditation. At the age of 40 (610 AD), he was visited in Mecca by the angel Jebreel. He developed the conviction that he had been ordained a Prophet and given the task of converting his countrymen from their pagan, polytheistic beliefs and what he regarded as moral decadence, idolatry, hedonism and materialism. In addition to being devoted to the Quran, followers of Islam (Muslims) are devoted to the worship of Allah through the Five Pillars: • the statement, the creed of Muslims: "I testify that there is no god but Allah Almighty; and I testify that Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), is His Messenger."I" believe in Allah; and in His Angels; and in His Scriptures; and in His Messengers; and in The Final Day; and in Fate, that All things are from Allah, and Resurrection after death be Truth." • prayer, conducted five times a day while facing Mecca (Morning Prayer, Noon Prayer, Afternoon Prayer, Sunset Prayer and Night Prayer); • the giving of alms to the poor; • the keeping of the fast of Ramadan (Ramadan is the holiest period in the Islamic year; it is held during the entire 9th lunar month of the year. This was the month in which the Qur’an was revealed to the Prophet Muhammad. It is a time at which almost all Muslims over the age of 12 are expected to fast from sun-up to sundown); • the making of a pilgrimage (Hajj) at least once to Mecca, if possible. (Mecca is the holiest city with Medina (also in Saudi Arabia) and Jerusalem). Muslims are forbidden to make images, drink alcohol or eat pork. They worship in mosques after a ritualistic cleansing of their bodies. The holy day is Friday. The holy book was written down from the sayings of Mohammed shortly after his death. It is written in Arabic and called the Quran (recitation). Muslims believe that parts of the Gospels, Torah and Jewish prophetic books have been forgotten, misinterpreted, incorrectly edited by humans, or distorted by their followers and thus their original message has been corrupted over time. With that perspective, Muslims view the Quran as a correction of Jewish and Christian scriptures, and a final revelation. Islam is found amongst the Arab countries, North Africa, and many parts of �Содержание Asia. It is the world’s second largest religion, and the most actively growing. To believers, Islam is more than a religion – it is a way of life. To outsiders it seems harsh and compassionless reflecting the values of the inhospitable deserts that spawned it. Islam has the bonds with Christianity and Judaism. It recognizes figures like Abraham and Moses and Jesus as prophets of one God, Allah. Muslims study the Qur’an like others study the Bible; they look to the Hadith, the sayings and stories of Muhammad, for guidance. As Islam evolved into a medieval civilization, various schools developed to interpret those passages in the Quran that are contradictory or unclear. Like other religions, Islam has its divisions and sects. The two main divisions of Islam are the Sunni [ˈsʊni] and the Shiite [ˈʃiːʌɪt]; the Wahabis are the most important Sunni sect. The Shiites dominate Iran, where they have developed a hierarchy of clerical authority – roughly similar to Roman Catholicism. By contrast, the majority of Sunni Muslims are rather like Protestants in their stress to individual interpretation of the faith. They are comfortable pursuing their faith within secular societies, they have been able to adapt to a variety of national cultures, while following their three sources of law: the Qur’an, Hadith and consensus of Muslims. More than 85 per cent of Muslims are Sunni. Sufism [ˈsuːfɪzəm] is a mystic tradition in Islam in which followers seek inner knowledge directly from God through meditation and ritual and dancing. They developed late in the 10th century AD as an ascetic reaction to the formalism and laws of the Qur’an. There are Sufis from both the Sunni and Shiite groups. However, some Sunni followers do not consider Sufism as a valid Islamic practice. They incorporated ideas from Neo-Platonism, Buddhism, and Christianity. They emphasize personal union with the divine. In the Middle East, some Sufi traditions are considered to be a separate school of Islam. In North and sub-Saharan Africa, Sufism is more a style and an approach rather than a separate school. Shariah Law Many Muslims believe in Sharia [ʃəˈriːə], Islamic law. It covers all aspects of life, from the broad topics of governance and foreign relations all the way down to issues of daily living. Shariah law tells devout Muslims what to eat, how to pray, and how to behave in public. Muslims believe the Shariah are revelations from God. Under strict Shariah law, people may not consume alcohol, borrow money at interest, or allow women in their family to go out in public without a veil. Strict Islamic countries ban mixing of the sexes outside of marriage, music, dancing, the taking of photographs, and other forms of worship. Afghanistan recently blew up a group of 1500 year old Buddhist statues because of the ban of making images. In Muslim-majority states, apostasy and blasphemy are considered crimes against the state and punished, often with death. Shariah law allows a man to take as many as four wives, provided his first wife agrees and he is able to support all of his wives and children. This provision of the Shariah is not often employed in even the most traditional Muslim societies. Saudi Arabia is the only nation that closely adheres to Shariah law. Criminals who commit murder, rape, or other violent crimes in Saudi Arabia face public amputation of arms or legs, or beheadings. While Westerners treat morality and behavior as an individual matter, the Saudis believe they are responsible for the entire society. The result is the nation that is close to being crime free. Change is slowly taking place even in Saudi Arabia. The ruling Saud family is balancing the traditional values of their nation with pressure to modernize. In current times, not all Muslims understand the Qur'an in its original Arabic. Thus, when Muslims are divided in how to handle situations, they seek the assistance of a mufti (Islamic judge) who can advise them based on Sharia and Hadith. Devout Muslims defend their values because they have served them well for over one thousand years. Saudi professor Hend Khuthaila said, "The West may be more advanced in some areas like science, but I have never believed for a minute that your culture is better than ours…” �Содержание ENGAGING THE TEXT 1. Who founded Islam? When and where did it happen? 2. How is Islam connected with Christianity? 3. Dwell on Muslim beliefs, sacred objects and places. 4. What are the subdivisions in Islam? Do they coexist peacefully? 5. What is Sharia law? Does it have a legal status in any country? VIDEO-BASED LISTENING COMPREHENSION Watch the video presentations about the basics of Islam. Access mode: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JTLNuttDid0 Describe 5 pillars of Islam: 1. Shahada 2. Salaat 3. Zakaat 4. Fasting 5. Hajj �Содержание TEXT EIGHT Atheistic Religions Buddhism Buddhism developed out of the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama. At the age of 29, he left his wife, children and political involvements in order to seek truth. It was an accepted practice at the time for some men to leave their family and lead life of an ascetic. He studied Brahmanism (characterized by the caste system and diversified pantheism: that God is the transcendent reality of which the material universe and human beings are only manifestations: it involves a denial of God’s personality and expresses a tendency to identify God and nature), but ultimately rejected it. In 535 BC, he reached enlightenment and assumed the title Buddha (one who has awakened). He promoted 'The Middle Way' as the path to enlightenment rather than the extremes of mortification of the flesh or hedonism. Buddhists believe in moderation in everything. It is a mellow gentle religion which is usually tolerant of other faiths. Many Buddhists are vegetarian abhorring the taking of life. Their main festival is the Thrice Blessed Day on which the Buddha was born, reached enlightenment, and died (in different years, of course). Long after his death the Buddha's teachings were written down. This collection is called the Tripitaka. This included a very large collection of commentaries and traditions; most are called Sutras. Buddhists believe in reincarnation and that one must go through cycles of birth, life, and death. After many such cycles, if a person releases their attachment to desire and the self, they can attain Nirvana – a state of liberation and freedom from suffering. The Buddha's Four Noble Truths explore human suffering. They may be described (somewhat simplistically) as: ♦ The reality and universality of suffering. Suffering has many causes: loss, sickness, pain, failure, the impermanence of pleasure. ♦ The cause of suffering is a desire to have and control things. It can take many forms: craving of sensual pleasures; the desire for fame; the desire to avoid unpleasant sensations, like fear, anger or jealousy. ♦ Suffering ceases with the final liberation of Nirvana. The mind experiences complete freedom, liberation and nonattachment. It lets go off any desire or craving. ♦ The eightfold path leads to the cessation of suffering. It consists of Wisdom (Right understanding, Right thinking), Morality (Right speech, Right conduct, and Right livelihood), and Concentration (Right effort, Right mindfulness, and Right concentration). In general, Buddhists do not believe in any type of God, the need for a savior, prayer, or eternal life after death. However, since the time of the Buddha, Buddhism has integrated many regional religious rituals, beliefs and customs into it as it has spread throughout Asia, so that this generalization is no longer true for all Buddhists. This has occurred with little conflict due to the philosophical nature of Buddhism. In Buddhist countries (Sri Lanka, Tibet, China, Japan, Thailand, Burma, and Cambodia) most men and many women become monks even for a short time. Monks dress in orange and collect food from the public once a day. Buddhists spend a lot of time chanting their scriptures (these chants are called mantras). �Содержание Taoism Taoism began in China as a combination of psychology and philosophy which Lao-Tse, the founder, hoped would help end the constant feudal warfare and other conflicts of his time. His writings, the Tao-te-Ching, describe the nature of life, the way to peace, and how a ruler should lead his life. Taoism was adopted as a state religion in 440 AD. Tao, roughly translated as path, is a force which flows through all life and is the first cause of everything. The goal of everyone is to become one with the Tao. Tai Chi, a technique of exercise using slow deliberate movements, is used to balance the flow of energy or "chi" within the body. People should develop virtue and seek compassion, moderation and humility. One should plan any action in advance and achieve it through minimal action. Yin (dark side) and Yang (light side) symbolize pairs of opposites which are seen through the universe, such as good and evil, light and dark, male and female. The impact of human civilization upsets the balance of Yin and Yang. Taoists believe that people are by nature good, and that one should be kind to others simply because such treatment will probably be reciprocated. Confucianism Confucianism is a community springing from Confucius, a Chinese philosopher in the 6th and 5th centuries B.C. Confucius traveled throughout China giving advice to its rulers and teaching. His teachings and writings dealt with individual morality and ethics, and the proper exercise of political power. He stressed the following values: ritual, propriety, etiquette, etc. love among family members righteousness honesty and trustworthiness benevolence towards others; the highest Confucian virtue loyalty to the state, etc. Unlike most religions, Confucianism is primarily an ethical system with rituals at important times during one’s lifetime. The most important periods recognized in the Confucian tradition are birth, reaching maturity, marriage, and death. Practical, socially oriented philosophy of Confucianism was challenged by the more mystical precepts of Taoism and Buddhism, which were partially incorporated to create neo-Confucianism. Jainism Jainism originated in India around the same time as Buddhism. Unlike the latter it never spread so there are no Jain countries outside India. The founder of the Jain community was Vardhamana. He attained enlightenment after 13 years of deprivation and committed the act of salekhana, fasting to death, in 420 BC. Jainism has many similarities to Hinduism and Buddhism which developed in the same part of the world. They believe in karma and reincarnation as do Hindus but they believe that enlightenment and liberation from this cycle can only be achieved through asceticism. �Содержание Jains follow fruitarianism. This is the practice of only eating that which will not kill the plant or animal from which it is taken. They also practice non-violence, because any act of violence against a living thing creates negative karma which will adversely affect one’s next life. The Jains believe in twenty teachers whose teachings are followed closely. They have a complete aversion to the taking of life. Jain priests often wear face masks to avoid accidentally swallowing insects and killing them. Jain temples are amongst the most beautifully carved (usually marble) in the whole world. Their holy sites are scattered around India; there are 838 temples draped on a mountain in Gujarat State. ENGAGING THE TEXT 1. Give Russian equivalents: 1) To seek truth; 9) the impermanence of pleasure; 2) diversified pantheism; 10) cessation of suffering; 3) transcendent reality; 11) to chant the scriptures; 4) to identify God and nature; 12) the first cause of everything; 5) mortification of the flesh; 13) to balance the flow of energy; 6) hedonism; 14) to be reciprocated; 7) moderation in everything; 15) benevolence; 8) to abhor the taking of life; 16) deprivation. 2. Answer the following questions: 1) Who founded Buddhism? When and where did it happen? 2) Dwell on Buddhist beliefs. Why is it “an atheistic religion”? Who or what do Buddhists worship? 3) What are other famous atheistic religions? How do they differ from the traditional western religions? �Содержание REVISION EXERCISES R1. Fill in the table with the words from the list: Words: Ramadan, Sufism, JHWH, an icon, an abbey, Medina, mufti, synagogue, Savior (Redeemer), the Sabbath, crucifixion, the Five Pillars, Sunni, rabbi, miter, gospel, Hajj, King Solomon, the Eucharist, Wahhābīs, Moses, the Holy Trinity, mullah, Joshua, a halo, Hasidic, Talmud, the Qur’ān, Lent, mosque, the Torah, Constantine, Sharī̀ ah, menorah, confirmation, kosher, the Holy Spirit, the Hadith, New Testament, the original sin, to baptize, Mecca, Bar Mitzvah, Christmas, crusade, patriarch, the Jerusalem Temple, seven sacraments, Muhammad, a veil, Shiite, the Star of David. JUDAISM CHRISTIANITY ISLAM R2. Fill in the gaps with the proper names and dates: 1. ……………… is a Hindu god with an elephant’s head. He is the popular and much worshipped son of ……………… and Parvati. 2. …………………. is an ancient Japanese religion which dates back to ……………. 3. The Zoroastrian holy book is called …………………. . 4. The book of Genesis describes the events surrounding the lives of the three patriarchs: …………………, ……………………, and Jacob. 5. ………………. established Jerusalem. �Содержание 6. The Bible, as we know it today, was collated by ………………. 7. One of the most important sacraments of Catholicism is ………………….. . 8. In ………………, the Great Schism took place between Rome and Constantinople. 9. The Baptism of Russia took place in …………… . 10. In ………………… the Russian patriarch Nikon undertook a thorough revision of Russian Orthodox texts and rituals. 11. Protestantism is a movement within Christianity, representing a splitting away form the Roman catholic Church during …………………. In Europe. 12. In ………….. the English King, ……………………, broke away from Rome and declared himself head of the Church in England. 13. The holy books of Islam are the Qur’an and ……………… . 14. The holy cities of Muslims, the places of pilgrimage, are ………….., ……………... , and Jerusalem. 15. ............ was the leader of the Israelites who led his people out of captivity in Egypt and received the Law from God. (the Avesta; King David; Constantine the Great; Moses; Ganesh; Shinto; Abraham; Mecca; the Hadith; Isaac; Medina; Shiva; Henry VIII; the Eucharist; 500 BC; 1533; 988; the mid-to late Renaissance; the mid17th century; the 11th century) R3. What religions do the following statements characterize? 1. They worship fire as a symbol of god. 2. It is a combination of Hinduism and Islam. 3. The God-creator in this religion is Brahma. 4. This religion combines elements and ideas from Egypt and Babylonia. 5. All good followers of this religion cremate their dead on sandalwood logs and scatter the ashes on a river. 6. The single supreme god of this religion is Ahura Mazda. 7. They dedicate their lives to a three-fold path represented by their motto: “Good thoughts, good words, good deeds.” 8. The name of their God is supposed to be pronounced only by the high priest on the Day of Atonement. 9. They worship in mosques after a ritualistic cleansing of their bodies. 10. The language of their liturgy is Hebrew. 11. Their holy book was collated by Constantine the Great. 12. The basic form of worship is the mass which celebrates the sacrament of the Eucharist. 13. They do not agree with the dogma that the Pope is Christ’s representative head of the church on earth. They consider that Christ is the only mediator between God and man. 14. The monarch of the country is the Supreme Governor of the Church. �Содержание 15. In the 1990s, this church started the ordination of women and the ordination of homosexuals. 16. Members of this Church believe in reliance on the Inner Light, the voice of God’s Holy Spirit experienced within each person. 17. Members of this Church abstain from alcohol and tobacco. 18. These people believe that they were chosen by God to receive more difficult responsibilities and more onerous punishment if they fail. 19. The Pope in Rome is their spiritual leader. 20. Their faith is based on the Book of Mormon. 21. The followers of this religion have to make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in their life. R4. Correct the following statements: 1. Baha’i is a combination of Judaism and Hinduism. 2. Hinduism is a monotheistic religion. 3. The holiest site for Parsees is Varanasi. 4. The Hindu scriptures are written in Hebrew. 5. Joshua built the first Jewish Temple. 6. Jews believe in the original sin. 7. The Jewish holy day is Friday. 8. The Great Schism took place in the 18th century. 9. The Protestants believe that the God’s grace is conveyed through the seven sacraments; they perform the same rituals as Catholics. 10. Different Christian denominations have different core beliefs. 11. The Russian patriarch Nikon undertook a thorough revision of Russian Orthodox texts and rituals to bring them into accord with Roman Catholicism. 12. The majority of Muslims are Shiite. 13. Sharia law allows a man to take as many wives as he likes. 14. The established national religion in the USA is Christianity. R5. Say whether the statement is true or false: 1. Followers of Shinto desire peace and believe human life is sacred. 2. The God-preserver in Hinduism is Shiva. 3. The Zoroastrian holy book is called the Law. 4. Jews believe that they are God’s chosen people. 5. Rabbinic Judaism is a principal form of Judaism that developed after the fall of the Second Temple of Jerusalem (AD 70). �Содержание 6. Christianity started out as a breakaway sect of Judaism over 200 years ago. 7. Constantine the Great was a lifelong Christian. 8. Protestantism is a movement within Christianity, representing a splitting away from the Eastern Orthodox Church. 9. Old Believers are dissenters within the Russian Orthodox Church who opposed Nikon’s reform. 10. Methodist Church, Baptism and Quakerism are Christian denominations. 11. All churches that originate from the Protestant Reformation are called “Evangelical.” 12. Anglo-Catholics give greater emphasis basing all faith and practice on the Bible. The Evangelicals within the church of England give greater weight to Church tradition and practices. 13. The Church of Scotland is more conservative than the Church of England. 14. Quakers are against violence, they refuse to bear arms and take part in armed conflicts. 15. Ramadan lasts for two weeks. 16. Muslims view the Qur’an as a correction of Jewish and Christian scriptures, and a final revelation. 17. Mosques are usually decorated with statues of the prophet Muhammad and his disciples. 18. Islam does not recognize Abraham, Moses, and Jesus as prophets of one God, Allah. R6. Working in five groups, divide the world map approximately in five parts. Each group is responsible to show: a) the regions where this or that religion emerged and has been evolving from various cults and faiths; b) the regions where any religion prevails and what are the historical backgrounds of their growth and spread; c) the territories where a number of various religions neighbor each other. �Содержание SECTION 3. RELIGION IN THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD Text One. Atheism and Agnosticism Text Two. Cults and Sects. Manipulation of Mind Text Three. Religious Intolerance. Anti-Semitism Text Four. Islamophobia �Содержание TEXT ONE Atheism and Agnosticism In modern understanding, an Atheist is a person who believes that no deity exists: neither a God, nor a Goddess, nor a pantheon of Gods. Some individuals who consider themselves Atheists mesh well with that definition. But they are probably in the minority. Most Atheists simply have no belief about deity. For them, Atheism is not disbelief in a deity or deities; it is a lack of belief. Agnosticism is a concept, not a religion. An agnostic is a person who feels that God's existence can neither be proved nor disproved, on the basis of current evidence. Agnostics note that theologians and philosophers have tried to prove, for millennia, either that God exists or that God does not exist. None have convincingly succeeded. Agnostics usually hold the question of the existence of God open, pending the arrival of more evidence. They are willing to change their belief if some solid evidence or logical proof is found in the future. Often, a Christian can't fathom how an atheist can have morals that aren't grounded in Biblical teachings. Atheists are convinced that morality comes from within, not from without. People have a natural antipathy towards killing, stealing, and other such immoral acts, dictated to them by what is commonly referred to as the conscience. Guilt is a natural feeling that goes through a man when he realizes he has done something morally wrong. Christians also sometimes find themselves worrying that an atheist will go to hell, and therefore feel sorry for them and attempt to “save” them so that they will be able to enter heaven. This is a hopeless practice, because people who call themselves “atheists” usually arrived at their convictions through lots of intense thought and soul-searching. Atheists are often afraid to tell people that they are atheists, for fear of the millions of devout believers who think they are immoral and on the road to hell. Back in 1987, when George H.W. Bush was a presidential nominee he said: "No, I don't know that Atheists should be considered as citizens, nor should they be considered patriots. This is one nation under God."No non-Atheist criticized this statement. There are two sides to this coin, however. Many atheists have responded to intolerance with equal intolerance towards religious people. Atheists have been known to refer to them as "hopelessly deluded," along with several other uncomplimentary names, and to describe religious beliefs as "old, silly ideas that we should have abandoned by now." ENGAGING THE TEXT 1. 2. 3. 4. What are the meanings of agnosticism and atheism? What is the difference between religious and atheistic concepts of morality? Is it easy to convert an atheist? Why? How do believers and atheists label each other? �Содержание EXTENDING THE CRITICAL CONTEXT I. Is it appropriate in the contemporary society to openly discuss one’s religious beliefs? Would you openly speak about your personal conviction and defend your views? II. How would you define the people you know from the point of view of their religious convictions? �Содержание TEXT TWO Cults and Sects. Manipulation of Mind denomination. A sect is a small religious group that holds most beliefs in common with its religion of origin, but has a number of novel concepts which differentiate a sect from that religion. Many religions started as sects; therefore, sects can be considered a normal mechanism by which new religious movements are generated. Most sects die out quickly; others linger; still others grow and evolve into a new established religious movement and are properly called denominations. There remains a negative connotation for many people to the word “sect”; they would much rather refer to their faith group as a There is no generally accepted, single, current definition for the word "cult". In the Mass Media the term has a very negative meaning. It is a small, evil religious group, often with a single charismatic leader, which engages in brainwashing and other mind control techniques, believes that the end of the world is imminent, and collects large amounts of weaponry in preparation for a massive war. It is often used as a synonym for mind control religious group or for doomsday cult. Doomsday / Destructive / Apocalyptic cults are religiously based, with very high intensity, controlling groups that have caused or are liable to cause loss of life among their membership or the general public. Out of the tens of thousands of new religious groups worldwide, only a very few meet these criteria. Much of loss of life among cult members is the result of mass suicides ordered by the group leadership. Having little self-will, they have been willing to follow any order from the leadership – even one leading to self-destruction. The members of Heaven's Gate, for example, were convinced that they would be transported, at death, to a space ship where they would evolve to a higher level of existence. There is overwhelming hard evidence that all deaths within the Ugandan Movement for the Restoration and many of the Solar Temple deaths were actually murders to cover financial fraud by the leadership. All of the Branch Davidian victims appear to have been murdered by their leaders – either by being shot or as a result of the arson-set fire. A religious group can be defined as a destructive cult according to the following criteria: • guruism – an absolute power of the spiritual leaders, who are worshipped and idealized; • strong hierarchy and discipline; • concealment of some important information about the cult from the converts; • secret rituals and levels of esoteric ordaining; • exploitation of the members; • moral relativism: anything that is useful for the cult is moral; • special techniques of mind control; • suggestion of an absolutely negative attitude to the convert’s previous way of life; • informational isolation from the outside world; �Содержание • intensive and continual indoctrination (obligatory study of the cult’s publications, pamphlets, watching and listening to the recorded sermons); • breaking off with family and friends; • suggestion of distrust to rational thinking; • techniques of “mental stop”, for example, by the repetition of mantras; • hypnosis, self-hypnosis, trance and intensive meditations; • language control: introducing new vocabulary or changing the meaning of the well-known words; • restrictions in food and sleep; • controlling sexual relations, from complete continence or the appointment of a spouse to perversions and prostitution; • suggestion of the feeling of guilt and the phobia of leaving the group. The major result of these techniques is the substitution of the personality by a manipulated quasi-personality. People turn into infantile creatures dependent on their spiritual “parents” both morally and materially. These “children” can be easily used as slaves. People lose their health, money, property, and the ability to be self reliant and successfully socialize. If a person leaves the group or is expelled as completely useless, he/she will inevitably face the problem of psychological and social rehabilitation. ENGAGING THE TEXT 1. Fill in the blanks using the given words: a) brainwashing, doomsday, disciples, assign, neutral, manipulative, extremely negative, dangerous, charismatic, view, innovative, denomination, recent, Christian, evil, mind control, cult, imminent, synonym, confusing The original meaning of the word _______ is "to worship or give reverence to a deity." Nowadays this religious term became the most ________ and _________. It has been ______ at least 7 new and very different meanings. If the original meaning remains positive; more _______ definitions are _______, negative, or __________. Generally the term means: A small, recently created, religious organization which is often headed by a single _________ leader and is _______ as a spiritually ________group. A cult in this sense may simply be a new religious movement on its way to becoming a _________. The ________religion, as it existed in 30 AD might be considered a cult involving one leader and 12 or 70 devoted _______as followers. In Mass media usage this term appears as a small, ______, __________religious group, which engages in _________and other _________techniques, believes that the end of the world is _________. Cult is often used as a _________for _______cult. b) humility, deprogramming, bondage, isolation, brainwashing, rewards, ostracism, deprivation, obedience, �Содержание punishments The techniques of ___________ usually involve __________ from former associates and sources of information; an exacting regimen calling for absolute _________ and _________; strong social pressures and _________ for cooperation; physical and psychological __________ for non-cooperation, including social _________ and criticism, __________ of food, sleep, and social contacts, ________, and torture; and constant reinforcement. Its effects are sometimes reversed through __________, which combines confrontation and intensive psychotherapy. 2. Answer the following questions: 1) What is the difference between the terms “sect” and “cult”? 2) What are Doomsday cults? 3) What kind of personality do the leaders of the cults have? Why do they have such a power over people’s minds? 4) What technology do cult leaders use to convert and control new members? EXTENDING THE CRITICAL CONTEXT I. What kind of people usually become the victims of various totalitarian organizations? II. How can a person resist the brainwashing? How will you behave if you feel that a stranger is attempting to indoctrinate you with something? III. Render the articles of the Federal Law “On Liberty of Conscience”: Федеральное Собрание Российской Федерации, Подтверждая право каждого на свободу совести и свободу вероисповедания, а также на равенство перед законом независимо от отношения к религии и убеждений, Основываясь на том, что Российская Федерация является светским государством, Признавая особую роль православия в истории России, в становлении и развитии ее духовности и культуры, Уважая христианство, ислам, буддизм, иудаизм и другие религии, составляющие неотъемлемую часть исторического наследия народов России, Считая важным содействовать достижению взаимного понимания, терпимости и уважения в вопросах свободы совести и свободы вероисповедания, Принимает настоящий Федеральный закон. Статья 14. Ликвидация религиозной организации и запрет на деятельность религиозного объединения в случае нарушения ими законодательства 2. Основаниями для ликвидации религиозной организации, запрета на деятельность религиозной организации или религиозной группы в судебном порядке являются: �Содержание • Нарушение общественной безопасности и общественного порядка, подрыв безопасности государства; • Действия, направленные на насильственное изменение основ конституционного строя и нарушение целостности РФ; • Создание вооруженных формирований; • Пропаганда войны, разжигание социальной, расовой, национальной или религиозной розни, человеконенавистничества; • Принуждение к разрушению семьи; • Посягательство на личность, права и свободы граждан; • Нанесение установленного в соответствии с законом ущерба нравственности, здоровью граждан, в том числе использованием в связи с их религиозной деятельностью наркотических и психотропных средств, гипноза, совершением развратных и иных противоправных действий; • Склонение к самоубийству или к отказу по религиозным мотивам от оказания медицинской помощи лицам, находящимся в опасном для жизни и здоровья состоянии; • Воспрепятствование получению обязательного образования; • Принуждение последователей религиозного объединения и иных принадлежащего им имущества в пользу религиозного объединения; • Воспрепятствование угрозой причинения вреда жизни, здоровью, имуществу, противоправными действиями выходу гражданина из религиозного объединения; • Побуждение граждан к отказу от исполнения установленных законом гражданских обязанностей и совершению иных противоправных действий. лиц к отчуждению другими Reference: FEDERAL LAW NO. 125-FZ OF SEPTEMBER 26, 1997 ON THE FREEDOM OF CONSCIENCE AND RELIGIOUS ASSOCIATIONS (with the Amendments and Additions of March 26, 2000, March 21, July 25, 2002, December 8, 2003, June 29, 2004, July 6, 2006, February 28, July 23, 2008) Mode of access: legislationline.org/.../action/.../RF_Freedom_of_Conscience_Law_1997_am2008_en. TEAM PROJECT Organize a talk-show “Cults and Sects in Russia.” Use information from the article given below. Find more information on the Internet Религиозные культы: билет в рай? За прошедшие десятилетия несколько религиозных направлений неуклонно укрепляли свои позиции, возникло много новых сект. Некоторые из них считаются опасными: члены сект попадают в изоляцию от внешнего мира и своих семей, постепенно растет их психологическая зависимость от секты, которая зачастую эксплуатирует ранимые души. Трансцендентальная медитация получила известность в середине 60-х годов благодаря прессе, �Содержание сообщившей об увлечении ею некоторых поп-звезд. Вскоре интерес к этому философскому направлению распространился по всему Западу. Основатель движения Махариши Махиш Йоги определял трансцендентальную медитацию как нерелигиозный метод релаксации, позволяющий раскрывать свои творческие способности и достигать вдохновения. Но с конца 70-х годов данное направление претендует на статус религиозного, цель которого – поддержание всеобщего мира и установления совершенного общества. Последователи движения Харе Кришна зарабатывают деньги преимущественно продажей религиозной литературы и предметов культа, сбором пожертвований на улице. Членов общества легко узнать по выбритым головам и длинным оранжевым одеждам. Кришнаиты верят, что бесконечное повторение мантры позволит им достичь некоторого подобия транса, установить связь с божественным началом и привнести в мир “бесконечное счастье”. Последователи этого течения принимают на себя четыре обязательства: не употреблять мяса, наркотиков, не играть в азартные игры и не иметь сексуальных связей вне брака. Церковь единения была основана корейским пастором Сон Мионг Муном. Мун представляет себя Христом, вернувшимся на землю и пытающимся спасти человечество. Мунисты стремятся вовлечь в свои ряды молодых, не состоящих в браке юношей и девушек. После прохождения испытательного срока Мун часто предлагает им будущего супруга или супругу, уделяя особое внимание объединению представителей разных наций. С годами Мун создал настоящую экономическую империю – наркоторговля, рыболовство, морские грузоперевозки. Церковь сайентологии была основана в США писателем-фантастом Ронном Хаббардом. Он создал свою философию, с помощью которой ее последователи учатся справляться с болезнями и преодолевать кризисы. Главной целью общества является “духовное здоровье”, это долгий и трудный путь к совершенству. Члены организации должны посещать многочисленные дорогостоящие курсы. Вступив в организацию, выйти из нее очень трудно, так как сайентологи располагают хорошо отлаженной системой возвращения заблудших и постоянно следят за своими собратьями. �Содержание TEXT THREE Religious Intolerance. Anti-Semitism Religious intolerance and persecution have been common throughout history, and most faiths have been subject to it at one time or another. The most conspicuous forms of such intolerance that remain a serious problem for the contemporary world are Anti-Semitism, Anti-Catholicism and Islamophobia. Anti-Semitism is hostility toward or prejudice against Jews as a religious, ethnic, or racial group, which can range from individual hatred to institutionalized, violent persecution. Professor Dietz Bering of the University of Cologne expanded on the definition by describing the structure of antiSemitic beliefs. To anti-Semites: "Jews are not only partially but totally bad by nature, that is, their bad traits are incorrigible. Because of this bad nature: (1) Jews have to be seen not as individuals but as a collective. (2) Jews remain essentially alien in the surrounding societies. (3) Jews bring disaster on their 'host societies' or on the whole world, they are doing it secretly, therefore the anti-Semites feel obliged to unmask the conspiratorial, bad Jewish character."Anti-Semitism has historically taken different forms: Religious antiSemitism and Racial anti-Semitism. Religious anti-Semitism. In the Middle Ages a main justification of prejudice against Jews in Europe was religious. Though not part of Catholic dogma, many Christians, including members of the clergy, have held the Jewish people collectively responsible for killing Jesus. For about 2000 years of Christian-Jewish history, the charge of deicide has led to hatred, violence against and murder of Jews in Europe and America. As the Black Death epidemics devastated Europe in the mid-14th century, rumors spread that Jews caused it by deliberately poisoning wells. Hundreds of Jewish communities were destroyed by violence. Never mind that Jews were not immune from the ravages of the plague; they were tortured until they "confessed" to crimes that they could not possibly have committed. Local rulers and frequently church officials closed many professions to the Jews, pushing them into marginal occupations which were considered socially inferior, such as local tax and rent collecting or moneylending. This provided support for claims that Jews are insolent, greedy, engaged in usury, and in itself contributed to a negative image. Natural tensions between creditors (typically Jews) and debtors (typically Christians) were added to social, political, religious and economic strains. The number of Jews or Jewish families permitted to reside in different places was limited for centuries; they were concentrated in ghettos, and were not allowed to own land; and they were subjected to discriminatory taxes on entering cities or districts other than their own, forced to swear special Jewish Oaths, and a variety of other measures, including restrictions on dress. They were required to wear something that distinguished them as Jews. It could be a colored piece of cloth in the shape of a star or circle or square, a hat (Judenhut), or a robe. Throughout the 19th century and into the 20th, the Catholic Church still incorporated strong anti-Semitic elements. The Second Vatican Council and the efforts of Pope John Paul II have helped reconcile Jews and Catholicism in recent decades, however. Racial anti-Semitism replaced the hatred of Judaism with the hatred of Jews as a group. It has its origin in 19th century pseudo-scientific theories that the Jewish people are a sub-group of Semitic peoples; Semitic people were thought by many Europeans to be entirely different from the Aryan, or Indo-European, populations. In this view, Jews are not opposed on account of their religion, but on account of their supposed hereditary racial characteristics: greed, a special aptitude for money-making, aversion to hard work, clannishness and obtrusiveness, lack of social tact, low cunning, and especially lack of patriotism. �Содержание Many analysts of modern anti-Semitism have pointed out that its essence is scapegoating. Indeed, it is a matter of historical record that many of the conservative members of the WASP establishment of the United States as well as other comparable Western elites (e.g. the British Foreign Office) have harbored such attitudes, and in the aftermath of the Russian Revolution, some xenophobic anti-Semites have imagined world Communism to be a Jewish conspiracy. A horrible form of race riots were pogroms. Most commonly they occurred in Russia and Eastern Europe; they were aimed specifically at Jews and often government sponsored. Pogroms became endemic during a large-scale wave of anti-Jewish riots that swept southern Russia in 1881, after Jews were wrongly blamed for the assassination of Tsar Alexander II. In the 1881 outbreak, thousands of Jewish homes were destroyed, many families reduced to extremes of poverty; women sexually assaulted, and large numbers of men, women, and children killed or injured in 166 Russian towns. The new czar, Alexander III, blamed the Jews for the riots and issued a series of harsh restrictions on Jews. An even bloodier wave of pogroms broke out in 1903–1906, leaving an estimated 2,000 Jews dead, and many more wounded. A final large wave of 887 pogroms in Russia and Ukraine occurred during the Russian Revolution of 1917, in which between 70,000 to 250,000 civilian Jews were killed by riots led by various sides. During the early to mid-1900s, pogroms also occurred in Poland, Argentina, and throughout the Arab world. Extremely deadly pogroms also occurred during World War II, including the Romanian Iaşi pogrom in which 14,000 Jews were killed, and the Jedwabne massacre in Poland which killed between 380 and 1,600 Jews. The last mass pogrom in Europe was the post-war Kielce pogrom of 1946. Racial anti-Semitism reached its most horrific manifestation in the Holocaust during World War II, in which about 6 million European Jews, 1.5 million of them children, were systematically murdered. Holocaust deniers often claim that “Zionist conspiracy" are responsible for the exaggeration or wholesale fabrication of the events of the Holocaust. Critics of such revisionism point to an overwhelming amount of physical and historical evidence that supports the mainstream historical view of the Holocaust. Anti-Semitism in the Muslim world increased in the twentieth century, as anti-Semitic motives and blood libels were imported from Europe and as resentment against Zionist efforts in British Mandate of Palestine spread. Anti-Semitism has certainly been heightened by the Arab-Israeli conflict. According to the 2005 U.S. State Department Report on Global Anti-Semitism, anti-Semitism in Europe has increased significantly in recent years. Beginning in 2000, verbal attacks directed against Jews increased while incidents of vandalism (e.g. graffiti, fire bombings of Jewish schools, desecration of synagogues and cemeteries) surged. Physical assaults including beatings, stabbings and other violence against Jews in Europe increased markedly, in a number of cases resulting in serious injury and even death. ENGAGING THE TEXT 1. Read and translate the following words and word combinations into Russian: Incorrigible; deicide; insolent; usury; to make a deal with the devil; blood libel; a special aptitude for money making; aversion to hard work; clannishness; obtrusiveness; low cunning; lack of patriotism; scapegoating; �Содержание Zionist conspiracy; massacre; desecration of synagogues and cemeteries. 2. Speak on: 1) Definition of the term anti-Semitism 2) Religious anti-Semitism 3) Racial anti-Semitism EXTENDING THE CRITICAL CONTEXT I. Is contemporary anti-Semitism religious or racial? Give examples to illustrate your point of view. II. Case Study. Write a commentary on the following news item, discuss them in a small group: Koptsev to Stand Trial for Synagogue Attack The investigation of the case of Alexander Koptsev, a troubled youth accused of a Jan. 11 stabbing spree in a Moscow synagogue, has been concluded, the police announced yesterday. Koptsev was charged with multiple attempted murder motivated by racial or religious hatred – a crime that could get him anywhere between eight to 20 years behind bars. But he also stands trial for inciting racial hatred, which provides for up to five years in prison. Koptsev allegedly burst into central Moscow Chabad Synagogue on Jan. 11 during the morning service, wielding a knife, and, according to witnesses, crying out racist remarks. Nine people were injured in the attack, including a U.S. national, an Israeli, and a man from Tajikistan. They have been discharged from hospital. The young man was later described as deeply troubled, a loner who had an interest in racist websites and violent computer games. A prosecutor in the case told journalists Thursday that Koptsev had passed a clinical examination in the Serbski Institute and was found sane. The prosecutor also added that investigators have established the suspect acted alone. (Moscow News) �Содержание TEXT FOUR Islamophobia Islamophobia is a neologism referring to a fear or prejudice towards Muslims. Some consider these fears to be irrational; others believe them to be wholly or partly justified. The term dates at least back to the 1970s, but it came to be much more popular during the 1990s. American journalist Stephen Schwartz claims that Islamophobia consists of the following: • attacking the entire religion of Islam as a problem for the world; • condemning all of Islam and its history as extremist; • denying the active existence, in the contemporary world, of a moderate Muslim majority; • insisting that Muslims accede to the demands of non-Muslims for theological changes in their religion; • treating all conflicts involving Muslims as the fault of Muslims themselves; • inciting war against Islam as a whole. Islam is seen as inferior to the West, barbaric, irrational, primitive, and sexist; violent, aggressive, threatening, supportive of terrorism, and engaged in a clash of civilizations. Criticisms made of the West by Islam are rejected out of hand. Hostility towards Islam is used to justify discriminatory practices towards Muslims and exclusion of Muslims from mainstream society. Italian prime minister Silvio Berlusconi's statement that Western civilization is “superior” to Islam can be characterized as Islamophobic. Clothing has become a flashpoint of alleged Islamophobia. France, which has a strong secular tradition separating church from State, was accused of Islamophobia when the wearing of headscarves by Muslim girls at school was banned. The policy, however, extends to large Christian crosses, Jewish skullcaps and other visible signs of religion. The Dutch parliament has voted in favour of a proposal to ban the burqa in public, which has led to similar accusations. Islamophobia is often expressed as a form of anti-Arab racism, though not all Arabs are Muslim and the majority of Muslims are not Arab. Many researchers do not deny the reality of Islamophobia but criticize the primary theory, concept and definition of Islamophobia as naive and oversimplified. They claim that rather than engage Muslims in debate, non-Muslims are supposed to tiptoe around them, for fear of causing offence. ENGAGING THE TEXT 1. Explain the meaning of the neologism “islamophobia”. 2. What events in the 20th–21st cc conditioned the emergence of this phenomenon? 3. Is the term universally accepted? �Содержание EXTENDING THE CRITICAL CONTEXT I. Comment on the following opinions: A) Religious politics scar India, Kashmir, Northern Ireland, Sri Lanka, Sudan ... the list of countries wrecked by religion is long. But the present danger is caused by Islamist theocracy … There is no point in pretending it is not so. Wherever Islam either is the government or bears down upon the government, it imposes harsh regimes that deny the most basic human rights. (British liberal feminist journalist Polly Toynbee, The Guardian) B) I see more headscarves. I feel this is not a good thing. A part of the Muslim population keeps more apart than before. I thought it would only be a matter of time before the Turks would integrate. You hear more, too, about honor killings. They don't have to be like us. It starts to be difficult when everyone has their own laws. There is a sense of drifting apart as if splitting the society. (A 42-year-old piano teacher in Berlin) C) Muslims want to be recognized as ''Muslims,'' not as ''Arabs'' or immigrants. In this sense, the way Islam reasserts itself has more to do with the Christian ''born-agains'' than with a pristine Arabic culture. The sense of threat among French public opinion (which by the way is also directed towards cults like Scientology) comes from the fact that the French political culture is based on the rejection of religion from the public sphere, whatever the religion. Any religious assertiveness is seen as a threat. (A senior researcher at Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris) D) How can our religion be a cause of danger? Islam teaches kindness and love for humanity. Islam is moderation, not extremists. Extremists are not real Muslims. They just give us a bad name. (A 48-year-old housewife from Rawalpindi, Pakistan) E) The problem is expectations, not only in Germany but in other countries in Europe. There is the attitude that the more secular you become the more of a g" ood citizen"you are. If society expects a Muslim not to be a Muslim, but a good citizen, we have a problem... The more secular a society becomes, say like Germany, you wonder how tolerant and understanding it is of religious identity. 9/11 changed a lot. Islam was seen as nonmodern. If people go to a mosque, they are seen as non-modern. This is a danger. (A 39-year-old parliamentarian, born in Germany of Turkish parents) II. Write a commentary on the following news item: Danish Cartoon Stokes Muslim Ire An escalating debate between Europe and the Islamic world over the publication of cartoons depicting the Prophet Muhammad adds credence to the so-called “clash of civilizations,” while underscoring at the same time the fragility of multicultural societies. The present scandal began on Sept. 30, 2005 when the Danish paper Jyllands-Posten published a series of 12 cartoons poking fun at the Prophet Muhammad, as well as other aspects of Muslim faith. One caricature showed the Prophet wearing a turban in the shape of a bomb, while another depicted him saying that the paradise was running short of virgins for suicide bombers. Islamic tradition considers it idolatrous to show any depictions of the Prophet Muhammad or Allah. �Содержание Denmark is paying a heavy price for its determination to uphold media freedoms. Syria, Saudi Arabia and Libya have all pulled their ambassadors out of Denmark, while protests and violence have broken out across the Muslim world. Perhaps most damaging, Islamic countries began a boycott of Danish products, which enjoy a relatively prosperous market throughout the region. On Tuesday, the offices of Jyllands-Posten were evacuated due to a bomb threat, while similar circumstances on Wednesday led to the evacuation of the Danish embassy in Damascus. This week, several European newspapers made the decision to support the cause of the Danish newspaper by publishing their own provocative material. The Parisian newspaper France Soir published all 12 cartoons, justifying its decision “not from an appetite for gratuitous provocation, but because they constitute the subject of a controversy on a global scale which has done nothing to maintain balance and mutual limits in democracy, respect of religious beliefs and freedom of expression.” On Tuesday, the owners of France Soir fired its editor, Jacques Lefranc, for printing the cartoons, before offering an apology to Muslims. “We express our regrets to the Muslim community and all people who were shocked by the publication,” the statement said. The outrage will doubtfully flicker out anytime soon, as newspapers in Germany, Italy, the Netherlands and Spain also decided to publish the Danish cartoons. The present scandal draws parallels to 1989, when British author Salman Rushdie released his book, The Satanic Verses, which many Muslims found blasphemous. In 2004, Dutch film maker Theo van Gogh was murdered after the release of his documentary about Muslim women. (Moscow News) �Содержание The best topic is one that you truly care about, and one that you're prepared to research. You'll have to back up your claim (whichever side you choose) with lots of evidence and support. These topics are sure to spark some interest. 1. “No peace among the nations without peace among the religions. No peace among religions without dialogue between the religions. No dialogue between the religions without investigation of the foundation of the religions”. Hans Kiing 2. Religion has moved countless individuals to lead more spiritual and ethical lives; it has brought them feelings of peace and security. It has inspired many to devote their lives to helping others. 3. Religion generates commitment and passion in people. However, this is a double-edged sword. 4. “Men never do evil so completely and cheerfully as when they do it from religious conviction.” Blaise Pascal 5. “...sometimes religion motivates violence, and sometimes it is used, even manipulated, to justify violence." Rev. Shanta Premawardhana. 6. When business and religion mix, souls are in jeopardy. 7. "...if you believe in it, it is a religion or perhaps 'the' religion; and if you do not care one way or another about it, it is a sect; but if you fear and hate it, it is a cult." Leo Pfeiffer. �Содержание PART 2. CULTURE AND LAW Warm-up Section 1. CRIME Vocabulary Vocabulary Exercises Text One. Criminal Statistics Text Two. Muggers Of Tokyo Had Better Watch Their Step: The Kimono Cops Are About Text Three. Gun Control Text Four. Couple Face Prison After Drunken Dinner Guest Killed Four In Crash Text Five. To Save Lives, It’s Not Enough To Go After Heavy Drinkers Text Six. Child Abuse Text Seven. Juvenile Delinquency Text Eight. Suicide Text Nine. Euthanasia Text Ten. Organized Crime Individual project: Presentation Section 2. PUNISHMENT Vocabulary Vocabulary Exercises Text One. Social Morality, Rules and Laws Text Two. Imposition of Penalties. Civil and Criminal Penalties Text Three. Imprisonment Text Four. Death Penalty Text Five. Crime Victims Fight Back Text Six. Role of Police Force Revision exercises Essay Prompts �Содержание WARM-UP What Is Crime? Crimes are acts which the state considers to be wrong and which are punished by the state. There are some acts which are crimes in one country but not in another. For example, it is a crime to drink alcohol in Saudi Arabia, but not in Egypt. It is a crime to smoke marijuana in England, but not (in prescribed places) in the Netherlands. It is a crime to have more than one wife at the same time in France, but not in Indonesia. It is a crime to have an abortion in Ireland, but not in Russia. It is a crime not to flush a public toilet after use in Singapore, but not in Malaysia. In general, however, there is quite a lot of agreement among states as to which acts are criminal. A visitor to a foreign country can be sure that stealing, physically attacking someone or damaging their property will be unlawful. But the way of dealing with people suspected of crime may be different from his or her own country. Different societies and different governments continually review their ideas of what should and shouldn’t be considered a crime. Homosexual acts, suicide and blasphemy were once crimes in all European countries, but have now mostly been decriminalized. On the other hand, discrimination against someone on the grounds of race or sex was not acknowledged as a crime until relatively recently, and is still not recognized in some countries. Recent cases of euthanasia (shortening the life of a sick person) are causing re-evaluations of the concept of murder. In most industrialized countries existing theft laws were not adequate to deal with computer crimes where complex kinds of information are stolen, altered or used to deceive other, and, thus, new laws have been passed. ENGAGING THE TEXT 1. What is a crime? Why are some acts considered crimes in one country but not in another? 2. Give examples of different treatment of such acts across cultures and epochs. 3. What is a crime? Why are some acts considered crimes in one country but not in another? 4. Give examples of different treatment of such acts across cultures and epochs. �Содержание EXTENDING THE CRITICAL CONTEXT Case study: Encyclopaedia Britanicca 2006 defines crime as “the intentional commission of an act usually deemed socially harmful or dangerous and specifically defined, prohibited, and punishable under criminal law.” Are cases described in the following newspaper items considered to be crimes in your culture? 1. Christians’ Blasphemy Convictions Thrown Out PAKISTAN – An appeal court has ordered the release of two Christians in eastern Pakistan who were sentenced to life in prison for allegedly insulting Islam’s prophet, Muhammad, a Christian activist said. Joseph Francis said brothers Rasheed and Saleen Nazir were convicted three years ago in the town of Pasrur. Police had charged them with blasphemy on the basis of a complaint by a Muslim ice cream vendor who had argued with them, Francis said. The appeals court ruled there was insufficient evidence. (Los Angeles Times, March 23, 2003) 2. Iranian Scholar Sentenced to Die TEHERAN (AP) – A hard-line court has sentenced to death a prominent scholar and close ally of President Mohammad Khatami for insulting Islam’s prophet, his lawyer said yesterday. Hashem Aghajart was found guilty of insulting Muhammad and questioning the hard-line clergy’s interpretation of Islam in a speech he made in June in the western city of Hamadan. The lawyer said his client, a leading member of the reformist political party Moujahedeen of the Islamic Revolution, also was sentenced to 74 lashes, banned from teaching for 10 years and exiled to three remote Iranian cities for eight years. Iran frequently issues such multiple sentences in cases where it wants to make an example of the accused. The lawyer said his client would appeal the verdict. (Los Angeles Times, Nov. 8, 2002) 3. “Honor Killings” on Rise in Pakistan ISLAMABAD (AP) – Pakistan’s main human rights group said Wednesday that at least 461 women have been slain by family members in so-called honor killings this year, about 25 % more than last year. In such killings, women are murdered to protect the “family honor” for “offenses” such as having sex outside marriage, dating, talking to men, being raped or even cooking poorly. The 2002 figure is up from about 370 honor killings in 2001 and demonstrates the need for increased protection for women in Pakistan, the private Human rights Commission of Pakistan said. The Commission obtained the data from the two provinces – Punjab and Sindh. It does not have enough resources to operate in Baluchistan and the NorthWest Frontier, deeply conservative provinces that share a border with Afghanistan. The fact that those conservative regions were not included in the tally suggests that the number of killings is higher. (Los Angeles Times, Dec. 12, 2002) �Содержание 4. Girl, 9, in Abortion Rights Furor MANAGUA, Nicaragua – She had been raped. She was pregnant. And she was dirt poor. But Rosa was 9. That gave her one more reason to want an abortion. “I don’t want to have to share my toys with another kid,” she told a local newspaper reporter. So, a few days later, suffering vomiting and false contractions, the girl took a pill that ended the nearly four-month pregnancy in a clandestine operation in a private clinic. But it was only the beginning of an uproar that signaled how Latin America, especially Central America, became the focus of an international battle over abortion. Newspapers devoted special sections to the drama. Television stations sponsored call-in programs, featuring outraged proponents and opponents of the abortion. Abortion in Nicaragua, a predominantly Roman Catholic nation, is illegal except when the mother’s life is in danger. The nation’s family affairs minister called for Rosa to be taken away from her parents. The country’s highest-ranking public health official declared that abortion is a crime. The Catholic Church noted that excommunication was automatic for anyone involved in the abortion – including Rosa and her family. The girl and her family were kept in a safe house until the nation’s attorney general ruled the abortion legal. Latin America, a heavily Catholic region, has always had among the world’s toughest laws governing abortion. All of its Spanish-speaking countries, except Cuba prohibit elective abortion. Most allow the procedure when the mother’s life is in danger, some in cases of rape or incest and a few when the woman’s health may be affected. Women have a difficult time putting the limited opportunities into practice even in countries with laxer standards. Bolivia, where abortions are permitted when a woman’s mental health is threatened, has only registered one legal abortion in three decades. (Los Angeles Times, March 23, 2003) 5. When a Kiss That’s Just a Kiss Is a Punishable Crime IRAN – A 50-ish actress was sentenced to 74 lashes for giving a young actor a kiss on the forehead. In the Islamic Republic, a kiss is not just a kiss when a woman plants it on an unrelated man publicly. In such a case, it becomes a crime. At a public film event, Gohar Khairandish, a 50-ish film actress, handed an award to a 27-year-old Ali Zamani and planted a genle kiss on his forehead. And then, she committed another crime – she shook his hand. Khairandish became emotional while presenting the award when Zamani began speaking about her husband who died a few months ago. Zamani had once been his favourite student, and for Khairandish he was like a son. Zamani was immediately arrested, appeared in court and was released on bail of 20 million rials ($ 2,500). Khairandish left the city but was pursued and eventually arrested. She was convicted and sentenced by a Yazd court. The judge suspended the lashings only after Khairandish apologized publicly, the daily Hambastegi reported Tuesday. But many conservatives were infuriated. They organized a loud protest demonstration to condemn the kiss. They said: “Today, the enemy has targeted our Islamic beliefs.” (Iran Times, Apr. 25, 2003) �Содержание SECTION 1. CRIME Vocabulary Vocabulary Exercises Text One. Criminal Statistics Text Two. Muggers Of Tokyo Had Better Watch Their Step: The Kimono Cops Are About Text Three. Gun Control Text Four. Couple Face Prison After Drunken Dinner Guest Killed Four In Crash Text Five. To Save Lives, It’s Not Enough To Go After Heavy Drinkers Text Six. Child Abuse Text Seven. Juvenile Delinquency Text Eight. Suicide Text Nine. Euthanasia Text Ten. Organized Crime Individual project: Presentation �Содержание VOCABULARY 1. offence – проступок, преступление 2. felony – (тяжкое) уголовное преступление, фелония 3. misdemeanor – проступок, преступление 4. petty offence – незначительное правонарушение 5. homicide – убийство 6. manslaughter – непредумышленное убийство 7. murder – (преднамеренное) убийство 8. assassination – (политическое) убийство 9. contract killing – заказное убийство, убийство по договору 10. suicide - самоубийство 11. rape – изнасилование 12. molestation – (сексуальное) приставание 13. assault – словесное оскорбление и угроза физическим насилием 14. aggravated assault – физическое насилие при отягчающих обстоятельствах 15. kidnapping – похищение людей, киднэппинг 16. (high) treason – (государственная) измена 17. arson – поджог 18. theft – воровство, кража, грабеж 19. larceny – воровство, кража 20. pickpocketing – карманная кража 21. shoplifting – кража в магазине 22. robbery – кража, грабеж • armed robbery– вооруженное ограбление • bank robbery – ограбление банка 23. burglary – кража со взломом �Содержание 24. house-breaking – незаконное проникновение в жилище 25. mugging – (групповое) нападение, хулиганство 26. embezzlement – растрата, хищение, присвоение (денег, имущества) • embezzlement of public funds – казнокрадство, растрата 27. abuse of power – злоупотребление властью, превышение служебных полномочий 28. insider dealing – использование конфиденциальной информации (служебного положения) в личных целях 29. bribery – взяточничество 30. forgery – подделка, подлог, фальсификация 31. counterfeit – подделка, фальсификация, жульничество • counterfeit money – фальшивые деньги 32. fraud – обман, мошенничество, жульничество 33. swindling – мошенничество 34. perjury – лжесвидетельство 35. slander – злословие, клевета, устное оскорбление 36. defamation – клевета, диффамация 37. libel – клевета (в печати), диффамация 38. blackmail – шантаж, вымогательство 39. disorderly conduct – нарушение общественного порядка 40. vandalism – вандализм, хулиганство 41. juvenile delinquency – преступность в среде несовершеннолетних 42. speeding – превышение дозволенной скорости 43. drunk driving/drink-drive – управление транспортным средством в состоянии опьянения 44. contempt of court – неуважение к суду 45. handling stolen goods – приобретение и сбыт краденого 46. laundering money – отмывание денег 47. drug trafficking – торговля наркотиками 48. white-collar crime – преступная махинация, совершаемая служащим или лицом, занимаемым высокое общественное положение 49. terrorism - терроризм 50. hijacking – захват (угон) самолета, судна и другого транспортного средства 51. act of crime – преступное действие �Содержание 52. crime of negligence – преступная небрежность 53. crime for profit – корыстное преступление 54. crime due to jealousy – преступление из ревности 55. crime of omission – преступное бездействие 56. deliberate/contemplated/planned/premeditated crime – предумышленное преступление 57. atrocious crime – жестокое/зверское преступление 58. compulsive crime – преступление по принуждению 59. conspiratorial crime – преступление по сговору 60. attempted/abortive crime – попытка совершить преступление 61. latent crime – латентное (скрытое) преступление 62. to turn to crime – стать на путь совершения преступлений 63. to commit a crime – совершить преступление 64. to thwart a crime – воспрепятствовать совершению преступления 65. to deter from crime – удерживать от преступления 66. to compound a crime – отказаться от возбуждения или осуществления уголовного преследования преступника (по корыстным или личным мотивам) 67. clearance of crime – раскрытие преступления 68. crime difficult to trace – трудно раскрываемое преступление 69. to catch in crime – изобличить в совершении преступления 70. recidivist/repeat offender/persistent offender – рецидивист 71. crime fugitive – преступник, скрывающийся от правосудия 72. crime detection agency – сыскное агентство 73. law enforcement authorities/agencies – правоохранительные органы 74. law-abiding – законопослушный 75. the Criminal Code – уголовный кодекс 76. the Civil Code – гражданский кодекс * CULTURAL NOTE: In US law “felony” is a crime punishable by a term of imprisonment not less than one year; “misdemeanors” are offences punishable only by fines or by short term of imprisonment in local jails. �Содержание VOCABULARY EXERCISES 1.1. Give nouns denoting people who commit the following crimes: E.g. murder – murderer Offence, felony, misdemeanor, homicide, assassination, suicide, rape, molestation, arson, robbery, pickpocketing, theft, shoplifting, burglary, housebreaking, kidnapping, mugging, embezzlement, bribery, forgery, swindling, perjury, blackmailing, vandalism, juvenile delinquency, drug trafficking, terrorism, insider dealing, hijacking. 1.2. Give corresponding verbs: E.g. offence – to offend Assassination, robbery, housebreaking, embezzlement, bribery, counterfeit, forgery, perjury, laundering money, hijacking, vandalism, deterrence. 1.3. Cross an odd word out: a. murder – assassination – perjury – homicide – manslaughter b. offender – lawbreaker – swindler – wrongdoer – delinquent c. robbery – shoplifting – larceny – speeding – theft d. planned – premeditated – deliberate – contemplated – latent e. swindle – hijacking – fraud – trickery – cheat f. mugging – defamation – slander – aspersion – calumny g. fabricate – counterfeit – forge – falsify – thwart 1.4. Fill in the blanks using the given words: Words: detention, drug trafficking, juvenile, reduce, victims of crime, firearms, unarmed, prevent, found guilty, persistent offenders, fraud, robbery, terrorist activities. The criminal justice system aims to _________ and _________ crime, to deal fairly with those suspected or accused of crimes, to help ___________ and to punish suitably those __________________. The proceeds from serious crime such as _______________, _________and _________ may be confiscated by the courts. _____________ must be licensed and their possession is closely regulated. The Government has certain exceptional powers for dealing with and preventing _______________. Law enforcement in Great Britain is carried out by 52 locally based police forces. Police officers are normally ___________and police powers of arrest and ____________ are regulated by statutory codes of practice. The police service is increasingly involved in international co-operation against crime. The Government is taking steps to tackle the increase in __________ crime. For example, it plans to establish secure accommodation for _______________________ under 15. �Содержание 1.5. Match these crimes with their definitions: 1. forgery ( ) 2. treason ( ) 3. fraud ( ) 4. laundering money ( ) 5. handling stolen goods ( ) 6. murder/homicide ( ) 7. mugging ( ) 8. drug trafficking ( ) 9. rape ( ) 10. arson ( ) 11. blackmail ( ) 12. assassination ( ) 13. hijacking ( ) 14. perjury ( ) 15. bribery ( ) 16. insider dealing ( ) 17. kidnapping ( ) 18. embezzlement ( ) 19. assault ( ). a. buying and selling illegal drugs b. illegally copying money, documents, etc. c. using privileged information about a business for personal profit d. sending money to a foreign bank so that it cannot be traced e. taking control of (esp. an aircraft) using the threat of force, usu. in order to make political demands f. stealing money that is placed in one’s care g. robbing a person with violence, esp. in a public place h. intentionally setting fire to something i. unlawfully killing someone j. a lie told on purpose in a court of law k. the practice of obtaining money or advantage by threatening to make known unpleasant facts about a person or group l. being in possession of stolen objects m. gaining money by deception n. offering something, especially money, to persuade someone to do something for you o. betraying your country or government p. violent or forced sex q. violent attack on another person r. murder of a ruler, politician, or other important person s. crime of seizing , confining, or carrying away a person by force or fraud 1.6. Match the synonyms and synonymous word-combinations: 1. misdemeanor a. swindling 2. theft b. libel 3. burglary c. criminal 4. forgery d. attempted crime 5. fraud e. persistent offender 6. defamation f. petty offence 7. recidivist g. premeditated crime 8. offender h. larceny 9. deliberate crime i. house-breaking 10. abortive crime j. counterfeit 1.7. Fill in the diagram with the words from the list (you may add more circles to the diagram and/or more words to the list if you wish) Words: theft, shoplifting, defamation, rape, murder, slander, robbery, larceny, homicide, burglary, kidnapping, manslaughter, house-breaking, libel, mugging, assault. �Содержание 1.8. Classify crimes into felonies and misdemeanors. �Содержание TEXT ONE Criminal Statistics Comparing the crime figures of different countries is a complex matter. It is necessary to consider not only how many crimes are committed, but how many are detected and recorded. In 2009, over 13,000 offenses were reported in both New Zealand and Sweden for every 100,000 people, compared with less than 200 in Brazil and Argentina, but this does not necessarily mean that South Americans are 650 times more law-abiding. According to the BCS (British Crime Survey) only 42 % of all crime is reported to the police. The main reasons for not reporting included the following: a matter is too trivial; no real loss occurred; people considered it a private matter and dealt with it themselves. The type of crime is another important factor. Britain has more reported crime in general than Japan but about the same number of murders (1.5 per 100,000 people, compared with 8.6 in the United States and 29 in the Bahamas). Rich countries tend to have more car thefts than poor ones. Most crime in Britain today is not against people, but against property. Theft, handling stolen goods and criminal damage, together with fraud, forgery and drug-related crimes, account for 94 % of all crime. About 15 % of all offences are thefts of or from motor cars. A new trend in car crime is the stealing of number-plates. Criminals use them to help to sell stolen cars and to evade camera speed fines and congestion charge cameras in London. With advances in car security making it difficult to steal cars, burglars are targeting houses with luxury cars outside to steal the car keys. Another trend in Britain today is the drop in house burglaries. According to statistics, the number of domestic burglaries (including attempts) has fallen by more than 40 per cent since 1998. This is due to a fall in demand for second-hand goods. Cheap rapidly changing technology means that burglars can no longer guarantee sales of used televisions, video players, stereos, cameras and computers which are among the most commonly stolen items. Police say that criminals have switched their efforts to the theft of brand new items through shoplifting and stealing lorryloads of consumer durables because they are much easier to get rid of. Police also say that thieves are increasingly using auction websites such as eBay to get rid of loot. Economic recession certainly contributes to the rise in crime. People unable to repay loans on their houses try certain types of mortgage fraud, such as borrowing money against a property which does not exist. Arson – deliberately burning something down – is sometimes used to get money from insurance companies. The United States is notorious for its high crime rates. In 2000, about 11.6 million crimes were committed; among them 1.4 mln were violent crimes and 10.2 mln – crimes against property. In urban ghettos violence is so widespread that homicide is the leading cause of death among black males between the ages of 25 and 45. Auto theft, mugging, robberies, and burglaries occur so frequently, especially in cities, that many people live in constant fear of crime. Statistics indicate that only 20 percent of the people involved in illegal activity are apprehended. Many of these criminals belong to organized crime networks, among them, the Mafia, drug smuggling rings, and street gangs. Several studies, however, have shown that the amount of crime in the U.S. is frequently overestimated. Experts believe that this awareness and fear of crime is largely caused by the great attention it is given in newspapers and on television, and also because violent crime is a popular theme for television series and films. Many Americans are therefore surprised to learn that, according to Interpol, the “general crime rate per 100,000 inhabitants” for the U.S. is significantly lower than that for several other western nations such as Sweden, New Zealand, or Denmark, and not �Содержание much higher than those for Western Germany, Austria, or England. Nevertheless, among all crimes, murder makes the headlines, and there is no doubt that homicides continue to be a serious problem in America. In 2000, the U.S. had a murder rate (per 100,000 inhabitants) of 5.5. It makes a difference, of course, where someone lives in America. The murder rates for states such as Texas, Florida or Michigan contrast with those for Minnesota, Iowa, and South Dakota. In some parts of the country, above all in decayed, inner-city areas, most people keep their doors locked and do not walk alone at night. In other parts, few people take such precautions. Most crime in Great Britain is committed by young males; it is opportunist and is not planned by hardened professional criminals although these do exist. Only a small proportion of young male offenders go on to become serious repeat offenders. There are many theories about why crime has increased in Great Britain since the 1980s. Some people think that because having material possessions became very important, more people were willing to commit crimes to get them. Other people consider that crime has increased because children are not raised properly by their parents. The Labour Party activists say that crime has increased partly because poor people feel that they are treated badly by society. Inadequate policing can be also named among other reasons. According to a survey last month, 60 per cent of burglars in Britain rate the chances of police catching them at below one per cent. In the United States, as elsewhere, the causes of serious crime are hotly debated and many reasons for it suggested. Among these are unemployment, drug-abuse, poverty, inadequate police enforcement, ineffective courts, racial discrimination, consumerism, television, and “a general decline in middle-class values”. However, American cities with a higher rate of unemployment and poverty do not necessarily have a higher crime rate. ENGAGING THE TEXT 1. Why is it difficult to compare the crime figures of different countries? 2. What are the most common crimes in Great Britain today? 3. What is a new trend in car crime? 4. Why has the number of domestic burglaries fallen since 1998? 5. The increase of what crimes is related to economic recession? 6. What are the characteristic features of crime in the United States? 7. Is crime widely covered by the mass media in the U. S.? What effect does it produce? 8. What are the causes of the increase of crime in Great Britain and the United States? �Содержание EXTENDING THE CRITICAL CONTEXT Comment on the information presented in the following text: Российская криминальная статистика I. По данным экспертов, количество совершаемых в России преступлений в несколько раз превышает официальный показатель, иными словами, количество зарегистрированных преступлений – это лишь видимая часть айсберга преступности. По оценкам экспертов, в РФ регистрируется лишь 20–25 % совершаемых преступлений. Проблема объективности показателей уровня преступности характерна не только для России, но и для других крупных государств. Существует несколько причин, которые влияют на относительность криминальной статистики. Во-первых, существование так называемой латентной преступности – правонарушений, о которых не заявляют в полицию. Многие граждане просто не обращаются в органы за помощью. Например, предпочитают молчать жертвы насильников, часто не распространяются о своих проблемах люди, которых «кинули» мошенники. Есть также категория граждан, которые не верят в эффективность работы органов и не желают понапрасну терять время. Они пытаются найти другие способы разобраться с обидчиками. Нельзя отрицать и существование «лакировки» криминальной действительности – укрывание преступлений работниками полиции. II. По мнению экспертов, существует множество факторов, влияющих на резкое увеличение или снижение преступности. Одним из таких факторов является время года. Весной, когда у людей с неустойчивой психикой наступает обострение, увеличивается число немотивированных преступлений. Критическим месяцем считается апрель. В этом месяце происходит рост числа жестоких убийств, избиений, изнасилований. Помимо этого, весной увеличивается число угонов автомототранспорта, так как на дороги выходят автолюбители, машины которых простояли в гараже всю зиму. Летом тенденция иная. В это время традиционно возрастает количество квартирных краж. Объяснение простое – многие горожане уезжают на дачи и в отпуск, оставляя свои дома и квартиры без присмотра. Летом становится гораздо больше уличных грабежей и так называемых «пьяных» преступлений. Если говорить о влиянии на преступность отдельных дней недели, то в первую очередь необходимо упомянуть выходные и праздничные дни. Количество людей, злоупотребляющих спиртным, возрастает, и, как результат, – пьяные ссоры, драки, убийства, кражи, пожары. Резко возрастает количество имущественных преступлений в период безденежья. Достаточно вспомнить времена, когда задерживали зарплату на несколько месяцев. Среди преступников тогда оказались даже люди, честно проработавшие всю жизнь. Но, пожалуй, наибольшее влияние на рост преступности оказывают амнистии. Осужденные, вернувшиеся из мест лишения свободы, предпочитают не искать работу, а делать то, что умеют лучше всего – воровать, грабить, убивать. Около 50 % амнистированных попадает за решетку в течение первого же года. �Содержание TEXT TWO Muggers Of Tokyo Had Better Watch Their Step: The Kimono Cops Are About Muggers and bagsnatchers working the upmarket Ginza district of Tokyo have a fearsome new crime fighter on their tracks – and she wears a kimono. Hostesses, the heart of the Japanese entertainment industry, but with a local knowledge that rivals that of the police, conduct evening patrols in an effort to make the streets of Ginza safer. Members of the six-strong patrols wear traditional Japanese dress and are accompanied by a police officer in case sudden action is called for. The hostesses believe that the use of their distinctive kimonos is an essential ingredient of their crime-prevention strategy, but admit that the clothes can be restrictive when in hot pursuit of a suspect. Leading each group are local mamma-sans, hostesses who have retired from the daily grind of pouring drinks and laughing at clients’ poor jokes to manage establishments. Many have spent their entire working lives in the district. The original purpose of the patrols was to remove stickers and cards left by sex-industry touts in telephone boxes and to rid the area of untidily parked bicycles. But early experiments showed that the sight of half a dozen kimono-clad hostesses had a wider effect. “People could see that we are keeping an eye on any suspicious moves,” one elegantly dressed patrol member said. “Everyone, especially potential criminals, can see that we have the place under surveillance.” Kei Kittaka, 61, the owner of the Seven Kei club, and a mamma-san for more than 30 years, said: “Usually the hostesses and mamma-sans go home at around one o’clock in the morning. I always carry my handbag away from the road to avoid robbers on motorbikes.” The bagsnatchers are not really targeting the cash but the handbags themselves. Most women in Ginza, especially the hostesses, own brand-name bags costing about 200,000 yen (£ 1,000). There is an organization which handles the market for such goods and sends the stolen bags overseas. The other fear is that Ginza could become a place where the mainstream sex industry takes place. Ginza hostesses, who see themselves as the upmarket heirs of the geisha tradition and, therefore, not part of the sex industry, feel this particularly and are hoping that the patrols will remind any potential entrepreneur that Ginza is not that sort of place. Crime-prevention Programs in Great Britain and the United States The government has been encouraging people in Great Britain to be more conscious of security, and make it harder for a criminal to commit a crime. The report which questioned 30 convicted burglars for the home security found that 70 per cent felt that householders were making their task easier by failing to secure their homes properly. A quarter said that breaking into homes was easy and nearly half admitted targeting property they had burgled before, knowing that stolen goods will have been replaced. Sixty per cent said that they chose homes that appeared empty. Today, many areas in Britain have a Neighbourhood Watch Scheme, where neighbours help each other by reporting anything that they think is suspicious. In the United States many experts are coming to believe that only grass-roots efforts to improve community life overall �Содержание will have a lasting effect. Many communities across the nation have started their own campaigns against crime, encouraging their citizens to participate in crime-prevention programs and to report crimes. Several civil rights groups actively support such “self-help” campaigns. In some neighborhoods, citizens participate in “neighborhood watch” programs and organize groups to patrol the streets. ENGAGING THE TEXT 1. Give Russian equivalents for the following words and word-combinations: A bagsnatcher; the upmarket district; to conduct patrols; a six-strong patrol; to make the streets safer; in case sudden action is called for; crime-prevention strategy; to have a wider effect; to have the place under surveillance; grass-roots efforts. 2. Answer the questions: 1) Why can patrols consisting of hostesses be very effective in preventing crimes in the upmarket Ginza district of Tokyo? 2) What are the purposes of the patrols? 3) What do convicted burglars think about the security of British homes? 4) What do citizens in Great Britain and the U. S. do to prevent crimes in their neighborhoods? EXTENDING THE CRITICAL CONTEXT I. Comment on the following ways of protecting your home from crime summed up in the brochure issued by Los Angeles Police Department. II. Do you protect YOUR home from crime? How? Home security starts at the door. • Use sturdy doors (solid wooden doors or doors reinforced with steel). • Use safe locks. • Install a peephole. �Содержание Remember to be window-wise! Never allow strangers into your home • Use your peepholes – and don’t open the door! • Ask service people to slip identification under the door (call their home office to double-check). • Have a person who claims to need help wait outside while you call for assistance. Play it smart on the telephone. • Don’t let callers know that you’re alone at home, or the times of day when your home is empty. • Retrieve answering machine messages often. Vary your routine. • Changing your daily patterns (even slightly) may discourage a burglar. Make sure your home looks occupied. • Don’t spread the news about your travel plans, business trips, etc. • Put some electrical equipment on timers (such as lamps, a radio, etc). • Arrange for call forwarding – the phone company can route your calls to a trusted friend or relative. • Ask someone to collect your mail and newspapers every day. Protect the property in your home. • Make an inventory of your valued possessions. Include the make, model, serial number and value of each item. This can simplify insurance claims. • Videotape or photograph small valuables (e.g. jewelry). Photograph each item next to a ruler and a piece of paper with your ID number. • Check your insurance coverage, and update it if necessary. Dogs can scare many burglars away. However, not all dogs are willing to protect. Also, owners are liable for any attack their dog makes. �Содержание TEXT THREE Gun Control Having a gun in your home is almost an article of faith in the United States. Many see it as the ultimate protection against violence. The second amendment to the Constitution states that “a well regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed.” These words are used by many to thwart controls on guns, even on automatic weapons. Facts, however, are helping to turn the tide. More than 30,000 Americans die from gunshots every year, and more people are killed by firearms than by motor vehicles. If you have a gun in your home the risk of harm to your friends and family increases 45-fold. Far from protecting family members, guns in the home increase their risk of suicide five-fold and of homicide three-fold. Fifteen American children are killed by guns every day, children who accidentally shoot themselves or another child usually do so with a gun they have found in their home, or that of a family member or friend. Many schools in the U.S. install metal detectors to deter children from bringing weapons to school, because some 50 murders occur each year at US schools. Opinion polls show that many Americans would like to have stricter gun control laws as a method of curbing crime. However, there are people and organizations in the U.S. who are strongly against gun control laws. One of them is the National Rifle Association (NRA), one of the most powerful pressure groups in the nation, with three million members. They argue that about half of the firearms in the U.S. are owned by hunters, and their slogan claims that “Guns don’t kill, people do.” The following are arguments people give for and against gun control. Gun control is illogical response to fear (Joel Schwartz, The Daily Bruin columnist): “Very often the mass media over-dramatize sincerely tragic events, but we must not get caught up in the mass hysteria and support draconian gun control laws. We must remain objective to the facts of gun ownership. The first fact we must keep in mind is that no amount of gun control legislation, including a universal ban on all gun ownership, would put a stop to the sniper’s crimes (remember the Washington D.C. sniper case). Drugs are illegal but people seem to have no difficulty acquiring them. Guns are the same way. The underground market for illegal guns is already strong as evidenced by constant gang violence and drive-by shootings in inner cities. Likewise, violent crimes cannot be stopped with gun control. Since banning firearms in England, the crime rates have skyrocketed as opposed to the relatively static rates in the United States. Also, big cities in states such as Texas and Georgia, where there is very little gun control, have incredibly mini-scale rates of crime compared to Los Angeles and New York City, both of which have stringent gun control. Because such a large black market exists for firearms, the general public has no way of knowing who is going to use a gun for a crime. As a result, the single best deterrent for violent crime is to place the criminal at the same disadvantage. Presumably, a criminal cares about his own life and would therefore loathe to attack someone if there was a high probability of that person being armed. A common objection to my argument for broad gun ownership is the worry that more kids will accidentally die due to misfire. After all, the media constantly feed us with imagery of children whose lives were tragically cut short by playing with firearms. But one must keep in mind that the media’s job is not to inform, but titillate. They know that stories of death sell papers and make ratings. Stories of criminals who ran away from a potential robbery or assault because their would-be victim had a firearm are not exciting enough to make good news. Only the victims of crime get �Содержание coverage. If no crime has occurred because a citizen threatens a criminal with a gun, there is nothing to report to the police. There are roughly 2,500 accidental gun deaths each year in the United States as opposed to 2.5 million occurrences where a gun is used for defensive purposes to prevent a crime. This means that if even one-tenth of a percent of the deterred crimes would have been fatal, lack of gun control would still save as many lives as are lost through accidental death with a gun. The logic and proof are incontrovertible. We must not allow an insane criminal to frighten us into allowing the government to take away our rights.” More guns aren’t a comforting thought (Theodre Jahng, a fifth-year student): “I wouldn’t feel any safer carrying a gun around campus, and the thought that everyone else could be carrying one is even more disturbing. And how could you protect yourself from a sniper even if you had a gun? One can’t see a sniper in the first place, so it wouldn’t matter how armed you are. A sniper is a shooter who remains concealed.” NRA doesn’t endorse murderers (Jason Parker, a student): “I feel it is important to remind people of two important points. It is not the gun that does the killing, but the person pulling the trigger. The gun is no more responsible for the death of those innocent people than your pencil is for misspelling words. Secondly, serial and mass murder has been accomplished without the aid of firearms for hundreds of years. Killers such as the Hillside Strangler, and the Sept. 11, 2001 hijackers accomplished their ends without the aid of firearms. Our constitutional right to keep and bear arms is not a constitutional right to murder. Organizations like NRA exist in order to protect this right and do not serve to encourage murder.” Neal Knox, a member of the National Rifle Association: “The right of self-defense is a fundamental one, and if I know how to use a gun and feel I need one for self-defense, whose business is it to say that I shouldn’t own one?” A police sergeant in Houston, a city with a high crime rate: “It’s getting to the point where it’s up to the citizens to protect themselves. And the way to do that is with guns.” At present, there are about 23,000 state and local gun laws and ordinances throughout the U.S. Some states have some restrictions on handgun open sales, some not; some states only prohibit carrying concealed handguns; in others owners must register all handguns and have a license to carry them, either open or concealed. In some communities people are not allowed to own any handguns. Proponents of gun control are pressing the government to at least require registration of all handguns and to require background checks on all potential handgun buyers to ensure that they do not have a criminal record. ENGAGING THE TEXT 1. Answer the following questions: 1) Is it legal to have a gun in the home in the United States? 2) Is it dangerous to keep a gun in the home? 3) What measures do schools take to prevent children from bringing weapons to school? 4) What is NRA? �Содержание 5) Do all states in the U.S. have similar gun laws? 2. Make a list of arguments for and against gun control. EXTENDING THE CRITICAL CONTEXT I. Read the passage from the Russian federal gun control law and enumerate the gun purchase restrictions Из Федерального закона об оружии Лицензия на приобретение оружия не выдается гражданам Российской Федерации: 1. не достигшим возраста, установленного настоящим Федеральным законом; 2. не представившим медицинского заключения об отсутствии медицинских противопоказаний к владению оружием и медицинского заключения об отсутствии в организме человека наркотических средств, психотропных веществ и их метаболитов; 3. имеющим неснятую или непогашенную судимость за преступление, совершенное умышленно, либо имеющим снятую или погашенную судимость за тяжкое или особо тяжкое преступление, совершенное с применением оружия; 4. отбывающим наказание за совершенное преступление; 5. повторно привлеченным в течение года к административной ответственности за совершение административного правонарушения, посягающего на общественный порядок и общественную безопасность или установленный порядок управления, административного правонарушения, связанного с нарушением правил охоты, либо административного правонарушения в области оборота наркотических средств, психотропных веществ, их аналогов или прекурсоров, растений, содержащих наркотические средства или психотропные вещества либо их прекурсоры, или их частей, содержащих наркотические средства или психотропные вещества либо их прекурсоры. 6. не имеющим постоянного места жительства; 7. не представившим в органы внутренних дел документов о прохождении соответствующей подготовки и других указанных в настоящем Федеральном законе документов; 8. лишенным по решению суда права на приобретение оружия; 9. состоящим на учете в учреждениях здравоохранения по поводу психического заболевания, алкоголизма или наркомании; 10. подвергнутым административному наказанию за потребление наркотических средств или психотропных веществ без назначения врача либо новых потенциально опасных психоактивных веществ, – до окончания срока, в течение которого лицо считается подвергнутым административному наказанию. Make use of the following expressions • medical certificate – медицинское заключение • unexpunged conviction – неснятая судимость • to serve one’s sentence – отбывать наказание • bring to administrative responsibility – привлекать к административной ответственности �Содержание • place of residence – место жительства • to be (registered) on the books – состоять на учете II. Discuss the issue of gun purchase arguing whether the list of the restrictions should be extended or reduced. Team project: DEBATES A debate is different from a speech because its purpose is for two sides to compete and prove which point is more valid. A debate is not just a speech where you can prepare word for word what you are going to say. Debates require their participants to actively listen to the other side, and to come up with a response, on the spot, to what the other has argued. There are some tips for students to exercise good listening and speaking skills to become the best debaters: Make sure you know your facts, and know them well. In any form of public speaking, it is important to be well researched and know what you are talking about, so you don’t contradict yourself. Know the other side of the story beforehand. Not only do students have to research their own topics, but they should also make sure they have an idea of what their opponent will be arguing before they go into the debate. Student should look up what the other side might say, so that they can respond quickly with a counterargument. When debating, think clearly and logically. Having a clear and organized train of thought will add to your confidence and make you appear more professional. To prove their point in structured way students should make a list of all their points starting with ones that are most important. Priority arguments are your main focus. If your opponent says something you are not prepared for you should find a way to bring the argument back to the importance of the main points. Debate the issue of gun control. Make use of the following materials. Example of debates Argume nt: high rate s of gun mortality and injury: Counterargument: the correlation between rates of gun wide spre ad gun owne rship incre ase s the dange r of ownership and firearm-related injuries and deaths is gun-re late d crime , homicide , and suicide difficult to trace; besides, the correlation between gun ownership and total homicide rates is insignificant Counterargument: If both parties have guns, it will most Argume nt: laws allowing law-abiding citize ns to definitely result in a firefight and unnecessary bloodshed carry a gun le gally in public may cause re ductions in crime be cause pote ntial criminals do not know who might be carrying a fire arm Arguments for and against gun control 1. Most violent crimes are committed with guns; thus, 1. Banning guns or prohibition will not make them restricting gun ownership will likely reduce the number of such crimes. 2. Lunatics, bullied school kids, disgruntled workers, and others can inflict mass casualties with guns that disappear, or make them any less dangerous. 2. Society will not become safer by restricting gun ownership as guns don't kill people, people kill people. 3. The very idea of gun control goes against the �Содержание otherwise wouldn't be possible. 3. A crime victim who has a gun may be in more danger than an unarmed person since the criminal may kill in perceived self-defense. 4. Suicides and crimes of passion are higher with gun availability, as it's much easier to act immediately on your impulses when a gun is available. 5. The 2nd Amendment of the Constitution was targeted towards militia, e.g. the National Guard, rather than individuals. 6. Crimes that may have been less harmful can be made more dangerous by adding a gun. 7. Legalized gun ownership means guns have a greater chance of falling into the hands of kids, potentially resulting in some deadly accidents. 8. Terrorism, school shootings, and other modern circumstances make guns more dangerous nowadays. principle of democracy that allows people the right to safeguard their lives, considering that guns are required by people to defend themselves when attacked by others. 4. If law-abiding citizens have guns, they are better equipped to handle situations where they might find themselves face-to-face with criminals, thus bringing the crime rate down. 5. If guns were banned or severely regulated, only the criminals would have access to them and law-abiding citizens would be helpless. 6. Woman and weaker individuals may have no means of self-defense from rape or other crimes, especially in the inner city. 7. Guns in the possession of citizens are an added protection against government tyranny. 8. Banning guns will create another potentially large source of organized criminal revenue, as a black market for guns will surely develop. Ideas that could be used as counterarguments • In most cases of mass killing we should blame tragedy on the mental condition of the criminal and not the fact that he had a deadly weapon. • Target-shooting is an Olympic sport, but we don't see the sportsmen armed with Kalashnikovs or M4 carbines. • Criminals will still find a way to gain illegal possession of guns or firearms as they do not respect the law. The killer can obtain his weapon from a friend who purchased it legally. • A gun is a lethal weapon and its only function is to kill; the fewer people have it, the better it is. Having gun control laws is intended to restrict the total number of guns moving around in the system to minimize the risk of their being used on innocents. • A few incidents can’t be used as a justification for denying self-protection to the citizens. The problem should be approached by creating greater awareness about safe-keeping of the guns. • The Second Amendment was required when America was a young country trying to consolidate its boundaries, and the citizens needed arms to defend themselves against foreign aggression. �Содержание TEXT FOUR Couple Face Prison After Drunken Dinner Guest Killed Four In Crash A crackdown on drunk driving in France entered a new territory in 2004 when a couple went on trial for allowing intoxicated dinner guest to drive away from their home and cause a crash that killed him and four others. The case of Angélique and Jean-Sebastien Fraisse, who faced up to five years in jail and a £ 50,000 fine, was closely watched because a conviction could open the way to flood of prosecutions and civil actions for indirect involvement in drunkdriving. The defendants’ situation was particularly poignant because they met at a rehabilitation center after they had both been victims of drunk drivers. Mme Fraisse, 29, has been confined to a wheelchair since being run over at 16. Her husband, 30, unemployed metal worker, recovered from his injuries. The couple was charged with “failing to prevent a crime or lesser offence causing bodily injury.” The prosecution arose from a night in February 2000 when Frédéric Colin drove away at 3.45 a.m. from dinner at the Fraisse’s home. He went the wrong way up a motorway and collided with a car carrying a family of five. Colin died along with the parents and two children in the other car. The grandparents of a surviving five-year-old boy applied for proceedings against the Fraisses when Colin was found to have a blood alcohol level 2.4 grams a litre. The legal maximum is 0.5. An investigating judge later dropped the case, but it was reinstated by an appeal court. The Fraisses said that they did all they could to prevent their friend from driving home. “We tried to take his keys but he wouldn’t let us,” Mme Fraisse said. “I suggested that he spend the night with us, but he didn’t want to. The prosecutors think I should have called the police but that is not realistic. I understand the suffering of the grandparents of the victims. I also hated the reckless driver who made me a paraplegic at 16. I have started having atrocious nightmares in which I see car accidents and I wake up screaming.” It was the first time when people were asked to be responsible for others’ behavior. Lawyers for the victims’ family said that they had brought the case to prove the principle of responsibility. Genevieve Jurgensen, a leading road safety campaigner, called for a guilty verdict that would set a precedent, even if the sentence was light. “It is a good thing that the case was brought. It will open a debate on the question of whether we are responsible for the acts of others. Should this couple have done more to prevent that man from taking his car? It’s high time that everyone realized that even if we do not drive while drunk, we are responsible if we let others do so.” French road deaths have dropped by 15 per cent over the past two years in a national drive to curb France’s culture of dangerous driving. But the death toll remains one of Europe’s highest. The authorities have been displaying a new toughness. A woman in Lyons was fined £ 14 last month for smoking a cigarette while driving because she had only one hand on the wheel. A café owner in Burgundy was given a twomonth suspended prison sentence last year because he had served a bottle of wine to a client who was intoxicated. The man later caused a fatal accident. In theory, hosts in Britain who allow a guest to drive after getting drunk could be charged with aiding and abetting drink-driving but in reality the issue is not so simple. Much depends on if they had known that he had been drinking too much or if they had encouraged him to drink or to drive home. (The Times, Oct. 2004) �Содержание ENGAGING THE TEXT 1. What were the Fraisses accused of? 2. Why was the defendants’ situation poignant? 3. What happened in February 2000? 4. Did the Fraisses try to prevent their friend from driving home? 5. Why did some road safety activists speak in favor of a guilty verdict? EXTENDING THE CRITICAL CONTEXT 1. Organize a panel discussion. Speak on behalf of various age, social, and professional groups. Cover the following issues: • Drunk drivers in Russia: the age, gender, and social profile. • The attitude of local communities to drunk driving. • The best ways to stop people from drinking and driving. • People’s responsibilities for letting others drink and drive. 2. If you decided to found a student organization against drunk driving, what slogan would you chose? �Содержание TEXT FIVE To Save Lives, It’s Not Enough To Go After Heavy Drinkers In the United States, the percentage of traffic fatalities caused by drunk drivers has dropped more than 40 % since 1982, and the number of people killed by drunk drivers has leveled off at 16,000 a year. In fairness, groups like MADD (Mothers Against Drunk Drivers) deserve credit for raising awareness of the dangers of driving while intoxicated. It was certainly MADD’s dogged efforts to spark public debate that affected the drop in fatalities since 1980, when Candy Lightner founded the group after her daughter was killed by a drunk driver. The situation on the roads has changed, and there’s little in MADD’s plan today that would improve traffic safety. A British study found that cell phone use while driving caused significantly more impairment than a 0.08 blood-alcohol level. And a 2001 American Automobile Association study found that eating, fumbling with a car stereo or CD player or disciplining children while driving are even more dangerous than cell phone use. New studies suggest that eating while you drive may be very distracting and dangerous. American insurance companies analyzed data from the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) about what caused certain types of traffic accidents. The surprising find was: Food is a big culprit. Especially hot food, such as coffee, tea or soup. Most food-related accidents occur in the morning. That’s not so surprising, considering that the worst offender is hot coffee. When spills happen, statistics show, accidents often follow. Accident reports show that drivers who spilled hot food or drinks said they lost control when they tried to protect themselves from being burned. Others said their attempts at cleaning up the ensuing mess on their upholstery or on themselves distracted them. Messy tacos headed the list of fast-food offenders, followed closely by any food with chili on it and then juicy hamburgers. Food with barbecue sauce, fried chicken, jelly- and cream-filled doughnuts, soft drinks and chocolate rounded out the list of the 10 most dangerous foods to consume while driving. Fast-food eateries are already aware that items they’ve sold may be the cause of accidents in the hands of careless or distracted drivers. Safer, sturdier, more standardized packaging is one improvement the industry has implemented. Easier-to-eat foods are other changes that are already in the marketplace. One might also wonder how many accidents are caused by drivers shaving, brushing their teeth, applying make-up, styling their hair or engaging in other grooming rituals. ENGAGING THE TEXT 1. 2. 3. 4. How has the situation on the roads changed in the U.S. since 1982? What behaviors are considered to be more dangerous than drunk driving? What makes eating while driving dangerous? What are the most dangerous foods to consume while driving? �Содержание 5. What do fast-food eateries do to make food safer for drivers? 6. Which of the following often cause accidents on the Russian roads: cell phone use; drinking hot coffee or tea; eating fast food; fumbling with a car stereo or CD player; listening to the radio; shaving; applying make-up; styling one’s hair; disciplining children? EXTENDING THE CRITICAL CONTEXT Comment on the information presented in the article. Водитель и сотовый: за и против Поведение и эмоции водителя, держащего мобильник у своего уха, с горячностью обсуждаются как сторонниками, так и противниками использования телефонной связи за баранкой машины. Споры сопровождаются «правдивыми историями», примерами «из жизни» и ссылками на «беспристрастную» статистику, которая призвана подтвердить правоту каждой из сторон. Против сотовых телефонов Надо признать, сторонники запрета берут верх, и сформированное под их влиянием общественное мнение придерживается «единственно верного и очевидного» воззрения: разговор по телефону и управление автомобилем – две вещи несовместные. Поиском взаимосвязи между разговорами по телефону во время вождения и дорожной безопасностью уже давно занимаются исследовательские центры США и Западной Европы. По данным Австрийского клуба дорожного движения VCO Studio, во время разговора по мобильному телефону реакция трезвого водителя хуже, чем в случае, если бы он выпил две-три кружки пива. В ходе исследования приняли участие 20 опытных водителей (мужчин и женщин) в возрасте от 21 до 45 лет. Оказалось, что внимательность снижается на 30 процентов, если водитель выпил больше, чем допускает норма, и на 50 процентов, если разговаривает по телефону. По статистике Комитета по вопросам транспортной безопасности, в Соединенных Штатах из-за разговоров водителей по телефону происходит каждая двадцатая авария. Руководствуясь этими данными, все большее количество штатов в США законодательно запрещает водителям пользоваться сотовыми телефонами, мотивируя это решение тем, что использование телефона при управлении автомобилем значительно повышает риск возникновения ДТП. Интересные данные были получены исследователями из Университета штата Юта (США). Оказалось, что во время разговора по мобильнику происходит так называемое старение молодых водителей: скорость их реакции снижается до показателей шестидесятилетних автолюбителей. Наиболее опасными во время вождения признаны чтение и набор SMS. Согласно сообщениям Американской коллегии врачей скорой помощи (American College of Emergency Physicians, ACEP), медики регистрируют увеличение количества травм и смертей, связанных с отправлением текстовых сообщений. Люди утрачивают концентрацию и теряют контроль над своим автомобилем, набирая текстовые сообщения, вместо того, чтобы следить за дорогой. Сильно отвлекают водителя считывание информации о входящих звонках и обдумывание ответов на вопросы собеседника. Очень опасны «шоковые» звонки, когда водитель получает слишком радостное или, наоборот, печальное известие. По мнению психологов, во время телефонного общения с партнерами по бизнесу водитель переключает до шестидесяти процентов внимания. Разговор по мобильному чаще всего приводит к �Содержание превышению скорости, сокращению безопасной дистанции, нарушению дорожной разметки и предписаний предупреждающих знаков. Против "hands-free" Наблюдения показывают, что так называемые наушники "hands-free" не уменьшают опасность. Эксперимент, проведенный исследователями университета штата Юта, показал, что говорившие по телефону в автомобиле, в том числе и с "hands-free", с запозданием нажимали на педаль тормоза, увидев красный свет светофора, или вовсе не успевали это сделать. Их время реакции превышало показатели тех, кто менял кассеты в автомагнитолах, искал новую волну в радиоприемнике или прикуривал сигару. Сенсационные заявления о малой пользе "hands-free" дополнили новые "подробности". Американские врачи считают: водители, часто использующие "hands-free" с наушниками, стремительно глохнут – виноваты электромагнитные излучения. Производителей "hands-free" в США уже в ближайшее время обяжут снабжать каждые наушники специальным защитным фильтром. О штрафах Чтобы снизить количество аварий, которые происходят из-за разговоров по телефону, в законодательстве многих стран предусмотрены жесткие наказания для водителей. В Соединенных Штатах штраф за телефонный разговор во время движения составляет сто долларов, в Великобритании за набор и чтение SMS водитель заплатит тысячу фунтов стерлингов и получит шесть штрафных баллов в водительской лицензии, в Сингапуре такое нарушение обойдется в пятьсот восемьдесят восемь долларов (на первый раз) или может закончиться шестимесячным тюремным заключением. За сотовый телефон Опровергают общепринятые взгляды на степень опасности пользования за рулем сотовым телефоном результаты исследования, предпринятого Гарвардским центром анализа рисков (Harvard Center for Risk Analysis, HCRA). По оценкам гарвардцев, несчастные случаи на дорогах, так или иначе вызванные использованием сотового телефона, не превышают 6 процентов от числа всех возможных дорожных происшествий. Разговоры за рулем в наших условиях И все же водителям не стоит обольщаться насчет полной безопасности пользования сотовыми телефонами на ходу. Особенно в наших условиях. Ведь большинство западных автолюбителей пользуются машинами с автоматической коробкой передач, а потому имеют «лишние» руку и ногу, не занятые в процессе управления транспортным средством. Да и ездят они по дорогам, качество которых зачастую не идет ни в какое сравнение с теми, что принято именовать проезжей частью у нас. Попытка же управлять четырехколесным чудом техники, сжимая в руке телефон, одновременно с этим переключая непослушную коробку передач, выполняя «змейку» между дорожными ямами и пытаясь увернуться от соседней машины, «подрезающей» мобильного говоруна, может закончиться плачевно. Так что, наверное, все-таки не стоит рисковать собственной жизнью ради удовольствия перекинуться парой словечек по мобиле, находясь за рулем машины. �Содержание TEXT SIX Child Abuse In the United States, Child Protective Services Law defines abuse as nonaccidental serious physical or mental injury, sexual abuse or exploitation, or serious physical neglect caused by the acts or omissions of the parent or caretaker. Child abuse takes many forms. It can be physical, mental, sexual, or happen through neglect. Physical abuse. This is when a child is purposely hurt through hitting, shaking, biting or similar actions. Physical signs include unusual bruises, welts, cuts or other injuries; broken bones and burns. Behavioral signs may include wearing clothing that is inappropriate for the weather to hide injuries; seeming withdrawn or depressed; seeming afraid to go home; shying away from physical contact and showing aggression. Mental abuse (also known as emotional or verbal abuse). This is when there are repeated threats or insults that are intended to scare or embarrass children to crush their self-esteem. Physical signs include speech disorders and/or slowed physical development. Behavioral signs may include the child acting too mature or too childish for his or her age; having difficulty making or keeping friends and having extreme behavioral changes. Sexual abuse. This is when there is any inappropriate sexual activity with a child. Inappropriate touching is the most frequent from sexual abuse. Others include using a child for sexual films or prostitution, or exposing a child to adult sexual activity (through photographs, videos, etc.) Physical signs include torn, stained or bloody underwear; trouble walking or sitting; pain, bruises or bleeding in the genital area; or a sexually transmitted disease. Behavioral signs are an unusual knowledge of sex; fear of a particular person; seeming to be withdrawn or depressed; sudden weight gain or loss; or shying away from physical contact. Neglect. Child neglect is a repeated failure to provide a child with needed care, protection and attention. Physical signs of neglect include poor hygiene; slowed physical development or appearing underweight; unattended medical needs or little or no supervision at home. Behavioral signs include arriving at school very early or late; missing school; being frequently tired or hungry; stealing food or dressing inappropriately for the weather. Statistics show that every 10 seconds in America a child is abused. More than three children in the United States die each day as a result of parental abuse. Caregivers and birth parents of a child younger than one year are the most common perpetrators of fatal abuse. Child molestation is most often perpetrated by relatives and acquaintances rather than strangers. Child abusers are found among all socio-economic, religious and ethnic groups, and most often they are ordinary people trapped in a stressful situation they can’t cope with. Children who are abused are at a higher risk for crime, substance abuse, school drop-out, teen pregnancy and a host of other social ills. Eighty-five percent of long-term prisoners were abused children. In the United States, there are people who are required by law to report suspected child abuse immediately. They are called mandated reporters. Among them are: health care professionals (physicians, dentists, psychiatrists, psychologists, nurses, hospital personnel, etc.); law enforcement officials (police officers, sheriffs, court officials, etc); social services professionals (social service workers, child care workers, clergy); educational professionals (teachers, principals, school nurses, school administrators and counselors); anyone who as part of his or her job has contact with children. �Содержание ENGAGING THE TEXT 1. How is child abuse defined in the United States? 2. What is physical abuse? 3. What are physical and behavioral signs of physical abuse? 4. What is mental abuse? 5. What are physical and behavioral signs of mental abuse? 6. What is sexual abuse? 7. What are physical and behavioral signs of sexual abuse? 8. What is child neglect? 9. What are physical and behavioral signs of child neglect? 10. Who are the most common perpetrators of fatal child abuse? 11. What usually happens to children who are abused? 12. What professionals are among mandated reporters of child abuse in the United States? EXTENDING THE CRITICAL CONTEXT I. Case Study: read the following newspaper items and discuss them in small groups, present the results to the whole group: Mother in Taped Beating Says She’s Not a Monster MISHAWAKA, Ind. – A mother who was captured on videotape slapping and punching her 4-year-old daughter said she was wrong to hit her child, but said “I am not a monster.” Madelyne Gorman Toogood, 26, surrended to police to face a child battery charge eight days after the nationally televised videotape depicted her shaking and hitting the child in a department store parking lot. Four-year-old Martha Toogood showed no signs of physical injury, but the state placed her temporarily in custody of �Содержание another family, prosecutor Chris Toth said Saturday. The girl was being examined at a hospital. “She is safe. We just have to, at this point, make sure there are not any deeper physical injuries,” Toth said. After being released from jail on bond, Toogood admitted to reporters that she was wrong to beat the child, but criticized authorities’ decision to temporarily place her daughter with another family. “My child shouldn’t pay for the mistake I made,” she said, insisting her husband or other extended family could adequately care for her daughter. “I am not a monster,” she said, fighting back her tears. “I have three children. Nothing’s ever happened before.” An arrest warrant issued Friday charged Toogood with battery to a child, which carries a maximum penalty of three years in prison. A judge set her bond at $ 5,000. Toogood posted bond and was released Saturday night. The incident was caught on video by a surveillance camera outside a Kohl’s department store in northern Indiana. Authorities said the mother had left the store angry because she was refused a cash refund for goods. The woman is then seen putting her daughter in the back seat of a sport utility vehicle, then pummeling, slapping and shaking her for nearly a half-minute. Toogood’s attorney said his client was angry because her child was misbehaving in the department store. “It’s clear here that the young lady lost her temper,” he said. “I’m not here to say she’s not guilty… She committed a shameful act. She shall be punished.” (Los Angeles Times) Father Put in Cell After Row with Daughter A father was arrested and locked in a police cell after allegedly assaulting his teenage daughter by grabbing her wrist to stop her going out. Mike Brundle, 52, a Tory council leader, said that he had been trying to restrain 15-year-old Georgina because he was worried that she was going to see “unsuitable” friends who would encourage her to take drugs. She marched out after wrenching away from his grasp and later complained to police. Mr. Brundle was held for six hours before being released on police bail. Georgina was temporarily taken into care and offered a place with foster parents but chose to return home after social workers let her spend the night with the friend of whom her parents disapproved. Mr. Bundle was upset to find that she had had her nose pierced while social workers were supposed to be looking after her. He and his wife, Joan, also have a 17-year-old daughter, Davinia. The Crown Prosecution Service will decide whether Mr. Brundle should face a criminal charge. He said: “I was only doing what any other father would have done.” (The Times) II. Give Russian equivalents: To slap; to punch; to pummel; battery; to face a (criminal) charge; to be released on bond/bail; to post bond; arrest warrant; surveillance camera; to misbehave; to offer a place with foster parents; to place a child in custody of another family. * CULTURAL NOTE: to foster = to take someone else’s child into one’s family for a certain period only and without taking on the full legal responsibilities of the parent. Children are often fostered in the U.S. when their parents cannot look after them because of illness, difficult behavior, or because the children are not cared for properly or �Содержание treated badly. Foster parents receive some money towards the care of the child but have no legal rights over the child who may return to the natural parents. (Longman Dictionary of English Language and Culture) III. Describe in detail the cases of Mrs. Toogood and Mr. Brundle. IV. What do you think of: • Mrs. Toogood’s and Mr. Brundle’s behavior • Authorities’ decisions and activities • The penalty that can be imposed on the parents V. Read the story: Thriving Despite It All When he was 6 years old, Rasheen Coleman’s drug-addicted mother chased him around a room wielding a knife and threatening to cut off his fingers. For years, his mother regularly berated Rasheen and beat him with anything that was at hand: her purse, a broomstick, her fists. The little boy was regularly in charge of two young half-siblings, preparing their meals and supervising their play. Any lapse – a middling report card or a brother’s naughty behavior – would bring a storm of his mother’s verbal and physical wrath upon Rasheen. And then, when Rasheen was 12, his ordeal was over. His mother died of AIDS. By reliable estimates, more than half of kids like Rasheen would enter adulthood with festering psychological wounds of one sort or another. A victim of such severe abuse is more likely than the broader population to have fallen prey to mental illness or addiction, to have dropped out of school, relied on public aid or run afoul of the law. He or she would be far more likely to have a string of failed relationships or jobs. Almost half, according to one study, would go on to abuse or neglect their own children. But somewhere at the core of Rasheen Coleman, there is a certain steel. And perhaps too, at the core of kids like him lies a more subtle alchemy: the secret to mending, and maybe even preventing, the emotional wreckage that child abuse and neglect can leave in its wake. Now a 25-year-old graduate student at Texas A&M, Coleman lives a life surrounded by friends and directed by ambitions. Coleman struggles – mightily and daily. He is shy, but pushes himself toward a career in politics. He likes to party and have fun, but won’t allow himself so much as a cigar for fear of addiction. He wants to forgive the woman who turned his childhood into a nightmare, but also wants to forget her and move on. Now finishing his master’s at the George Bush School of Government and Public Service, Coleman hopes to marry a woman who is his mother’s opposite – and his own complement. Not explosive. But also not too shy, like he is himself. And would he ever hit or berate the wife and two children (first a boy, then a girl) that are the family of his dreams? “I don’t think I would ever do to my kids, or to my wife, what my mother did to me,” says Coleman quietly. “I just know how it felt – and I would never want anyone to feel like that, especially my kids.” VI. Describe what happened to Rasheen Coleman using the following word-combinations: • to berate • to be in charge of smb. �Содержание • to enter adulthood • festering psychological wounds • to fall prey to mental illness ir addiction • to drop out of school • to run afoul of the law • to have a string of fail relationships or jobs • the emotional wreckage that child abuse can leave in its wake • to live a life surrounded by friends and directed by ambitions • to struggle mightily and daily • for fear of addiction • to turn smb.’s childhood into a nightmare • to move on VII. Express your opinion on the following issue: Psychologists say that the most typical effects of a childhood marked by severe abuse include depression, criminality, academic failure and substance abuse. Do you think people like Coleman are rare exceptions? VIII. Comment on the following article: ALBUQUERQUE, N.M. – A mother playing with her children at a park spotted a little black sneaker sticking out of the sand underneath the playground equipment. Figuring a youngster had lost his shoe, she bent down to pick it up. It was strangely heavy. She had made a ghastly discovery: a dead little boy, buried in the sand. For nearly a week, who the toddler was, how he died, and who put him there were a chilling mystery. Police went door-to-door in the neighborhood around the park. They contacted schools, day care centers and homeless shelters. They asked families at other playgrounds about the boy. They reviewed hours of video surveillance tapes from hospitals and stores. They followed up on more than 100 tips. What had baffled police after the discovery of the body was that the chubby-cheeked boy appeared to have been well-fed, showed no signs of physical abuse and was wearing a matching outfit that seemed to suggest he had been well-cared for. But when no one came forward to report a missing child, police came to suspect that whoever buried the child was a parent or someone taking care of him. The break in the case came just hours after police released a photograph-like picture of the boy. Family members and others called a tip line to say the picture of "Baby Angel" – as neighbors living near the park nicknamed him – looked like Ty. Then, police received a tip that Toribio, the child’s mother, was on her way to the police station to turn herself in. Tiffany Toribio, 23, a single mother, had no criminal record or history of drug or alcohol abuse. She confessed to suffocating her 3-year-old son, Tyruss "Ty" Toribio, as he slept on the climbing gym – a crime so cold-blooded that neighbors struggled to comprehend it; and even veteran officers became choked up. Toribio was homeless and sleeping in the park, having been kicked out of her mother's home and a friend's apartment in the days before her son's death. When asked the reason why she took Ty's life, Tiffany said that she did not want him to grow up with no one caring about him the same way that she had grown up with no one caring about her. �Содержание Toribio is a member of the Zia Pueblo Indian tribe. Tribal Gov. Ivan Pino said the tribe has asked that Ty's body be returned to the pueblo for burial. People living near the park raised about $ 4,000 for a funeral for the boy. Neighbors gathered at a makeshift memorial at the playground consisting of candles, flowers, stuffed animals and toy trucks. "We named him `Baby Angel' and it's important now that we know his real name," said Sarah Sandoval. "Now, his mother will find out this baby has a lot of people who love him and will do anything for a child." RENDER THE FOLLOWING ARTICLE: Избиение младенцев в поднебесной Внеплановых детей в Китае выбрасывают умирать на улицу. На чистой улице китайского города целый день валялся труп младенца. Прохожие поеживались от зимнего холода и невольно ускоряли шаг, не обращая никакого внимания на мертвого ребенка. Проводимая в Китае политика ограничения рождаемости очень необходима, иначе китайцев было бы уже, по меньшей мере, 2 млрд, а не 1,3 млрд, как сейчас. Китайская семья, по традиции, обязательно хочет иметь сына, но за рождение второго ребенка без специального на то разрешения родителей могут лишить всех социальных льгот. В старину в Китае убийство новорожденной девочки не считалось большим грехом, и в наше время такое преступление тоже не вызывает осуждения в обществе. Ни для кого не секрет, что медицинский персонал больниц негласно делает живым новорожденным младенцам инъекции формальдегида в головной мозг через родничок и регистрирует их как мертворожденных. Власти придирчиво следят за процентом рождаемости в больницах, и если этот показатель выше среднего, то врачи и акушерки не получат премий. Если в отдаленных провинциях Центрального Китая «лишних» детей безжалостно уничтожают, то в некоторых пограничных и прибрежных районах процветает торговля младенцами обоего пола. Неподалеку от вьетнамской границы «детские маклеры» открыто предлагают на рынках свой товар. Девочек продают за 200 юаней (около 25 долларов), примерно столько составляет годовой доход китайского крестьянина. Мальчики стоят вдвое дороже. В богатых портовых городах Восточного Китая бездетные супруги платят за новорожденного ребенка 400–500 долларов. В крупных городах действуют организованные группы перекупщиков, которые не останавливаются и перед похищением детей. Украденных малышей нередко помещают в убогие сиротские приюты, где их держат, пока не найдутся покупатели. (Криминальный курьер, № 35, 2001) �Содержание TEXT SEVEN Juvenile Delinquency Juvenile delinquency is not a simple term. It means different things to different individuals, and it means different things to different groups. It has meant different things in the same group at different times. In popular usage, the term “juvenile delinquency” is used to describe a large number of disapproved behaviors of children and youth. In this sense, almost anything that the youth does that others do not like is called juvenile delinquency: smoking cigarettes, truancy, sleeping in alleys, fighting, bullying; being violent at home and in public places; damaging property, stealing cars for a short time for pleasure, writing on walls in public places and using vulgar language. Moreover, such vague, imprecise and subjective terms as idleness, loitering, waywardness, stubbornness, incorrigibility, and immoral conduct are commonly employed. Sometimes, young offenders are involved in more serious crimes - mugging, house-breaking, shoplifting, theft, drug-trafficking, arson, rape and homicide. Juvenile delinquency is defined not only in terms of types of conduct, but also by the fact that only those within certain age limits are regarded as eligible for this category. Here again we find immense diversity, for there is no consensus regarding either the age floor or the age ceiling for juvenile delinquency. Delinquent behavior of some kind among young people if not universal is at least far too widespread to be regarded as abnormal. Indeed, there must be few children who do not at one time or another engage in behavior that is sometimes defined as delinquent. It should be recognized that a certain amount of misconduct and some behavior problems are to be expected in children as a part of the process of growing up. There is no doubt that much of what is officially defined by law as delinquent represents no more than the perennial nonconformity of youth. Surveys of self-reported delinquency both in Europe and America strongly suggest that most convicted youths are little different in their behavior from their peers who are not caught. The assumption that youth can be discretely divided into the delinquent and nondelinquent is a mistake which has had unfortunate consequences. The majority of juvenile delinquents both convicted and unconvicted do not subsequently pursue criminal careers; only a minority becomes recidivists. The fact that only a minority of young criminals become persistent adult criminals indicates that for most young people it is a passing phase of development and not a static condition. In Great Britain as well as in the United States, a Juvenile Court decides whether a young offender should continue to live within the family, or whether he or she should be taken into local authority care or sent to a foster family. Such offenders normally attend special schools. Some are required to attend special centres on Saturdays, for leisure activities and skills training. Some are required to do community service. Young people who have committed felonies are sent to prison. In general, juvenile institutions emphasize rehabilitation through vocational training and academic education, though some juvenile facilities, while physically more attractive than jails, do little more than hold children for specified periods of time. Yet, there is a significant amount of rehabilitative work going on in juvenile halls, detention homes, or training schools. �Содержание ENGAGING THE TEXT 1. Give Russian equivalents: Truancy; (to) bully; to be violent at home and in public places; to damage property; idleness; loitering; waywardness; stubbornness; incorrigibility; to be eligible for; misconduct; perennial nonconformity of youth; a passing phase of development; to pursue criminal careers; to emphasize rehabilitation through vocational training and academic education. 2. Answer the following questions: 1) What does the term “juvenile delinquency” mean? 2) What are the age limits within which the offenders are eligible for juvenile delinquency? 3) Is delinquent behavior among young people universal? 4) Why is it normal to expect a certain amount of misconduct in children? 5) Can the youth be divided into the delinquent and nondelinquent? 6) Do many juvenile delinquents become recidivists? 7) What does a Juvenile Court in Great Britain and the United States decide? EXTENDING THE CRITICAL CONTEXT I. CASE STUDY: COMMENT ON THE FOLLOWING ARTICLES ♦ Why do you think it is sometimes difficult for the parents to control their children? Parents of bullies are desperate for help Bullies will be stopped only if their parents are given more outside help and support. Research says that most parents of bullies fear that they are losing control of their children, with high levels of conflict at home as the young demonstrate a range of anti-social behavior. Psychologists say that parents of bullies need to be more involved, supported and given specialist help from experts such as educational psychologists, otherwise their children would continue to make the lives of their victims a misery. �Содержание Key findings based on an analysis of nearly 900 calls to the charity’s 24-hour free helpline, revealed that 80 per cent of parents talked about high levels of conflict between child and parent, 69 per cent spoke of their child high level of anger and 77 per cent reported that their child was having problems at school, with more than half saying that their child had been excluded or was playing truant. Parents of bullies were three times more likely to report that their child was lying and twice as likely to mention stealing, smoking and drug abuse. Conflict with peers was another concern, with 20 per cent talking about their children being in with a bad crowd. One typical parent who called the helpline said: “My daughter, who is only 15, is having under-age sex. She is bullying at school and is verbally abusive at home. My husband and I are at the end of our tether.” Another said: “My 12-year old son is extremely violent at home. He terrorizes his two sisters and smashes up the house. I cannot cope with him any longer and want him taken into care. My two daughters have phoned Childline every night for the past six weeks, they are so distraught.” Dorit Braun, the chief executive of Parentline Plus, said: “These findings concern us greatly. Not only are parents of bullies telling us that they are losing control, but the statistics demonstrate the very high levels of conflict both within the families, the school and the community. It is essential that when schools and communities develop policies to cut down on bullying and to ensure community safety, the families of bullies are recognized as needing responsive and appropriate help with their family life, and not further isolation.” In 2004, Kelly Holmes, the double Olympic gold medal-winner, and Rio Ferdinand, the England footballer, helped to launch the first national anti-bullying week. BBC Radio One aired messages from DJs and pop stars and children were encouraged to wear a wristband to show their determination to beat bullying and to support victims. (The Times, Nov. 2004) • Who do you think should be responsible for the offence committed by a minor: parents or children themselves? Mom Liable for Son’s Vandalism A teenager’s mother has been convicted in connection with the graffiti vandalism committed by her son and ordered to pay restitution, officials said Wednesday. Yolanda Jeronimo, 43, was found guilty Friday of one count of contributing to the delinquency of a minor for failing to curtail her son’s frequent tagging activity in the Van Nuys area. Jeronimo, whose son defaced Grant High School with graffiti, was sentenced by Los Angeles Superior Court Judge Leland Harris to three years’ probation and 100 hours of graffiti removal. She must pay $ 150 in restitution to the Los Angeles Unified School District and attend 52 sessions of parenting classes. “There is no excuse for the destructive behavior of vandalism and graffiti,” Rocky Delgadillo, the City Attorney, said. “This is an example of how parents will be held responsible for making restitution to their communities if their children commit an illegal act.” (Los Angeles Times, Apr. 17, 2003) II. Comment on the following statement. Give examples to prove your point of view. “Juvenile offenders are usually found among children from broken homes or large unhappy underprivileged families”. III. Young offenders may be put into detention centres or supervised in the community. Which system is more effective? Is it common in Russia to place a child with a foster family? �Содержание VIDEO-BASED LISTENING COMPREHENSION Watch the video “Juvenile Delinquency Causes & Solutions”. Access mode: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sIBN_b9zwro Sum up the information presented in the video. Use the following as the outline of your summary. 1. Definition of the term “juvenile delinquency”. 2. Factors and causes of juvenile delinquency. a) Family • first agents of our socialization • permissive parenting • family rules, curfews • parental incarceration • engage in criminal behavior • contact with the criminal justice system b) Adolescence Peer Groups • association with friends • show me who your friends are and I’ll tell you who you are • contribution of peer relations to juvenile delinquency c) Neighborhoods/Environment 3. Solutions RENDER THE FOLLOWING ARTICLES: Поиск причин правонарушений несовершеннолетних В Российской Федерации на протяжении ряда лет отмечается тенденция роста преступности среди несовершеннолетних. Подростками ежегодно совершается свыше 300 тысяч преступных деяний, из них около 100 тысяч – детьми, не достигшими возраста уголовной ответственности. В составе преступных деяний несовершеннолетних преобладают (до 85 %) преступления против �Содержание собственности (кража, мошенничество, грабеж, разбой, угон транспортного средства, умышленное уничтожение или повреждение имущества). Приблизительно 10–12 % составляют преступления против общественной безопасности и здоровья населения (хулиганство, незаконное изготовление, приобретение, хранение, перевозка, пересылка или сбыт наркотических или психотропных веществ, незаконное приобретение, передача, сбыт, хранение, перевозка или ношение оружия, боеприпасов, взрывчатых веществ или взрывных устройств). Преобладание данных видов преступлений отражает, с одной стороны, возросшее финансовое и имущественное расслоение в обществе, с другой – рост социальной нетерпимости и агрессивности. Возможно, психологические переживания подростков вследствие данных социальных процессов сублимируются в антисоциальные, криминальные формы поведения, которые ведут к конфликту с законом. Устойчивой чертой становится групповой характер преступлений, совершаемых несовершеннолетними. Свыше 60 % составляет доля групповых преступлений. Причем групповая преступность несовершеннолетних все более приобретает признаки организованности. Около 30 % преступлений совершается подростками при соучастии взрослых. Как правило, это наиболее опасные преступления: бандитизм, убийства, разбои. Происходит «омоложение» преступности несовершеннолетних, что означает более интенсивный рост криминальной активности подростков 14–15 лет по сравнению с категорией 16–17-летних. Это опасная тенденция, так как известно, что чем раньше человек станет на преступный путь, тем меньше у него шансов исправиться, а сам путь будет длиннее и опаснее. Но самое опасное заключается в том, что криминальная деятельность, участие в уголовных группировках становится в глазах подростков и детей социально престижным занятием. Если ранее такая категория населения как преступники ассоциировалась в массовом сознании молодежи с маргинальными слоями общества – людьми, находящимися вне социально значимых сфер деятельности, то в настоящее время ее можно считать самостоятельной социальной группой. Важнейшей ее характеристикой являются профессиональные занятия различными видами противоправной деятельности. В криминальной среде сформировалась собственная «теневая» социальная структура со своими «теневыми» стратами, вхождение в которые гарантирует определенный уровень материального достатка и присущий им набор социальных возможностей. Участие в деятельности, принадлежность к тем или иным преступным кланам и группировкам нередко становится для некоторых подростков пределом желаний и социальных ожиданий. Часть несовершеннолетних мечтает пополнить ряды уголовников и войти в состав криминальных структур. Интересно отметить, что такая тенденция динамики правонарушений со стороны подростков характерна не только для России. За последние десять лет в европейских странах число преступлений, совершенных несовершеннолетними, также возросло от 40 до 70 %. Ни в одной из европейских стран не наблюдается сокращения количества малолетних преступников. Не лучше положение дел и в США. Таким образом, рост детской преступности в России соответствует общемировой тенденции. (Щегорцов А.А., консультант отдела социальной политики Информационно-аналитического управления). �Содержание TEXT EIGHT Suicide Suicide is defined as intentional self-destruction or self-killing. Although suicide is considered a major form of deviance in many contemporary societies, attitudes towards suicide have varied in different ages and cultures. Convicted criminals in ancient Greece were permitted to take their own lives. Jews committed suicide rather than submit to ancient Roman conquerors or crusading knights who intended to force their conversion. Various Oriental cultures have always looked upon suicide with some ambivalence and under certain circumstances it has not been highly disapproved. Among the Chinese, suicide was permitted for reasons of revenge against an enemy. The Japanese custom of seppuku (also called harakiri) allowed samurai to commit ritual suicide as a way of protecting honor and demonstrating loyalty. During World War II Japanese “suicide divers” (kamikaze) received military decorations in rather elaborate ceremonies before their suicidal flights. Japan’s use of kamikaze suicide bombers was a precursor to the suicide bombing that emerged in the late 20th century as a form of terrorism, particularly among Islamic extremists. Suicide, however, is generally condemned by Islam, Judaism, and Christianity. These religions define suicide as a sin; and the suicide’s body is denied burial in a Christian cemetery. In Great Britain, throughout the medieval period and into relatively recent times, suicide was also defined as a crime and was punished as a felony – the suicide’s possessions were confiscated by the Crown. Similar penalties were put into effect in the New England colonies and remained until the early 1800’s in Massachusetts. Attempts to commit suicide are still punishable by law in many countries. In England, attempted suicide was a crime until 1961 and for a long time remained a criminal offense in North Dakota, South Dakota and New Jersey. Nevertheless, statistics show that the rate of suicide within many modern societies is very high. Approximately 30,000 people in the United States kill themselves each year, which means that every 18 minutes one person takes his or her own life. The number of attempted suicides is nine times higher than that of “successful” attempts. In Great Britain, suicide is the fourth commonest cause of death. Over 4,000 persons a year commit suicide, and the number of unsuccessful attempts, of varying degrees of determination, is probably twenty times as great as the number of “successful” suicides. ENGAGING THE TEXT 1. What is suicide? 2. How was suicide treated in various cultures and in different periods of human history? 3. What is the attitude to suicide today? �Содержание 4. How high is the rate of suicide in modern societies? 5. What are the reasons for suicide? EXTENDING THE CRITICAL CONTEXT I. Can you give explanations to the following? • Suicides tend to occur more frequently among males than among females. The sex ratio for suicide is approximately four to one. • In “successful” attempts men outnumber women; in unsuccessful attempts women outnumber men and there are more young people. • Older people commit suicide more frequently than younger people. • In the United States, whites commit suicide far more frequently than nonwhites, particularly blacks. • Suicide is the second leading cause of death among college students in the US. II. Render the following text. Единственный самоубийца, о котором повествует Новый завет, – это Иуда, и поэтому христианская церковь всегда сурово относилась к самоубийцам. Светские власти также не жаловали самоубийц. Особенной строгостью отличались французские законы XVII столетия, предписывающие вешать самоубийцу за ноги, а имущество его отдавать королю, который обыкновенно дарил его кому-нибудь из родственников или приближенных. Однако постепенно наказание самоубийц исчезает из европейских законодательств, оставаясь лишь некоторое время в Англии и на практике почти не применяясь. В России наказуемость самоубийства, в противоположность Западной Европе, постепенно усиливается. Уложение царя Алексея Михайловича никаких наказаний для самоубийц не содержит, но уже Военный и Морской артикулы Петра Великого постановляют, что «ежели кто себя убьет, то мертвое его тело, привязав к лошади, волоча по улицам, за ноги повесить, дабы, смотря на то, другие такого беззакония над собою чинить не отваживались». Исходя из такого взгляда на самоубийство, проект Уголовного уложения 1754 года предлагал тех, которые «со злости или досады или другой причины убийство над собой учинить намерены были», наказывать плетьми или содержать в тюрьме два месяца. Составители проекта Уголовного уложения 1766 года отнеслись к самоубийцам и покушавшимся на него несколько мягче, предлагая «мертвое тело первых при церквах по чину церковного положения не погребать, а отвезть в убогий дом, а вторых, если они в классах состоят, понижать одним чином впредь до выслуги; дворян не служащих и первой гильдии купцов подвергать церковному покаянию на полгода». Свод законов уголовных (статьи 378–380) ввел в действие карательную меру, состоящую в признании сознательного самоубийцы не имеющим права делать предсмертные распоряжения, «почему как духовное его завещание, так и всякая изъявляемая им воля в отношении к детям, воспитанникам, имуществу или даже чему-либо иному считаются ничтожными и не приводятся в исполнение». Покушавшийся на самоубийство в состоянии вменяемости подлежал наказанию как за смертоубийство и должен был быть сослан в каторжные работы. Сверх того, в обоих �Содержание случаях назначалось безусловное лишение христианского погребения. Составители проекта Уложения 1843 года заменили для покушавшегося каторжные работы тюрьмою от шести месяцев до одного года и предоставили духовному начальству самому в каждом случае решать, следует ли самоубийцу лишать христианского погребения. Этот взгляд разделило и Уложение о наказаниях 1845 года, но сделало лишение христианского погребения безусловно обязательным. В таком виде уголовно-гражданская кара за самоубийство перешла последовательно в Уложения 1857, 1866 и 1885 годов. Излишне говорить, как были жестоки и нецелесообразны эти меры. Несомненно, что в огромном большинстве случаев человека, решившегося на самоубийство, не могла смущать мысль о лишении христианского погребения, но для родных, близких и друзей эти, в сущности, антихристианские меры должны были составлять тяжелое и ничем не заслуженное испытание, связанное с материальными лишениями, позором или нередко с нищетой. И только после Октябрьской революции статья 148 советского Уголовного кодекса, совершенно исключила наказуемость самоубийства и покушения на него. Наказание предусматривалось лишь за содействие или подговор к самоубийству несовершеннолетнего или лица, заведомо неспособного понимать свойство или значение совершаемого им поступка. III. Do you think suicide is a crime? Give your arguments. In your discussion consider the following: Crime usually means any serious violation of human laws; Sin means a breaking of moral or religious rules. �Содержание TEXT NINE Euthanasia “I will give no deadly medicine to any one if asked, nor suggest any such counsel” (The Hippocratic Oath) Euthanasia Definitions • Euthanasia: the intentional killing by act or omission of a dependent human being for his or her alleged benefit. (The key word here is "intentional". If death is not intended, it is not an act of euthanasia) • Voluntary euthanasia: When the person who is killed has requested to be killed. • Non-voluntary: When the person who is killed made no request and gave no consent. • Involuntary euthanasia: When the person who is killed made an expressed wish to the contrary. • Assisted suicide: Someone provides an individual with the information, guidance, and means to take his or her own life with the intention that they will be used for this purpose. When it is a doctor who helps another person to kill themselves it is called "physician assisted suicide." • Euthanasia by Action: Intentionally causing a person's death by performing an action such as by giving a lethal injection. • Euthanasia by Omission: Intentionally causing death by not providing necessary and ordinary (usual and customary) care or food and water. What is the difference between euthanasia and assisted suicide? One way to distinguish them is to look at the last act - the act without which death would not occur. Using this distinction, if a third party performs the last act that intentionally causes a patient's death, euthanasia has occurred. For example, giving a patient a lethal injection or putting a plastic bag over her head to suffocate her would be considered euthanasia. On the other hand, if the person who dies performs the last act, assisted suicide has taken place. Thus it would be assisted suicide if a person swallows an overdose of drugs that has been provided by a doctor for the purpose of causing death. It would also be assisted suicide if a patient pushes a switch to trigger a fatal injection after the doctor has inserted an intravenous needle into the patient's vein. Euthanasia Pros and Cons Arguments For Euthanasia: • It provides a way to relieve extreme pain • It provides a way of relief when a person's quality of life is low • Frees up medical funds to help other people • It is another case of freedom of choice Arguments Against Euthanasia: • Euthanasia devalues human life • Euthanasia can become a means of health care cost containment • Physicians and other medical care people should not be involved in directly causing death • There is a "slippery slope" effect that has occurred where euthanasia has been first been legalized for only the terminally ill and later laws are changed to allow it for other people or to be done non-voluntarily. Unbearable pain as the reason for euthanasia. Probably the major argument in favor of euthanasia is that the �Содержание person involved is in great pain. Today, advances are constantly being made in the treatment of pain and, as they advance, the case for euthanasia/assisted-suicide is proportionally weakened. Demanding a "right to commit suicide" Probably the second most common point pro-euthanasia people bring up is the so-called "right." But this is not giving a right to the person who is killed, but to the person who does the killing. In other words, euthanasia is not about the right to die. It's about the right to kill. Euthanasia is not about giving rights to the person who dies but, instead, is about changing the law and public policy so that doctors, relatives and others can directly and intentionally end another person's life. People do have the right to commit suicide. Suicide and attempted suicide are not criminalized. Suicide is a tragic, individual act. Euthanasia is not about a private act. It's about letting one person facilitate the death of another. That is a matter of very public concern since it can lead to tremendous abuse, exploitation and erosion of care for the most vulnerable people among us. Should people be forced to stay alive? No. And neither the law nor medical ethics requires that "everything be done" to keep a person alive. Insistence, against the patient's wishes, that death be postponed by every means available is contrary to law and practice. It would also be cruel and inhumane. There comes a time when continued attempts to cure are not compassionate, wise, or medically sound. That's where hospice, including in-home hospice care, can be of such help. That is the time when all efforts should be placed on making the patient's remaining time comfortable. Then, all interventions should be directed to alleviating pain and other symptoms as well as to the provision of emotional and spiritual support for both the patient and the patient's loved ones. Where are euthanasia and assisted suicide legal? The Netherlands and Belgium permit both euthanasia and assisted suicide. Oregon and Washington passed laws and Montana's Supreme Court determined that assisted suicide is a medical treatment. In February 2008, Luxembourg passed a law to permit euthanasia and assisted suicide. The law went into effect in March 2009, after additional procedures were completed. Although euthanasia and assisted suicide are illegal in Switzerland, assisted suicide is penalized only if it is carried out "from selfish motives." In 1995 Australia's Northern Territory approved a euthanasia bill. It went into effect in 1996 but was overturned by the Australian Parliament in 1997. Also, in 1997, Colombia's Supreme Court ruled that penalties for mercy killing should be removed. However the ruling does not go into effect until guidelines are approved by the Colombian Congress. ENGAGING THE TEXT 1. What is euthanasia? 2. What is the difference between euthanasia and assisted suicide? 3. What are the arguments for/against euthanasia? 4. Where are euthanasia and assisted suicide legal? EXTENDING THE CRITICAL CONTEXT I. Do you think Jack Kevorkian received a just punishment? Why do you think his lectures have become so popular in recent years? In the 1980s, Jack Kevorkian, a U.S. pathologist and advocate of physician-assisted suicide, devised a “suicide �Содержание machine,” with which a person could commit suicide by merely pushing a button, and in the 1990s he assisted in the deaths of over 100 terminally ill persons. He was tried, convicted twice, and jailed, and his medical license was revoked. In 1998, he was convicted of murder for administering a lethal injection himself and was sentenced to 10–25 years in jail. Between 1999 and 2007, Kevorkian served eight years of a 10-to–25-year prison sentence for second-degree murder. He was released on parole on June 1, 2006, due to good behavior. Kevorkian was on parole for two years, and one of the conditions he had to meet was that he would not help anyone else die. He was also prohibited from providing care for anyone who was older than 62 or was disabled. He could go back to prison if he violated his parole. Kevorkian said he would abstain from assisting any more terminal patients with death, and his role in the matter would strictly be to persuade states to change their laws on assisted suicide. He was also forbidden by the rules of his parole from commenting about assisted suicide. On January 15, 2008, Kevorkian gave his largest public lecture since his release from prison, speaking to a crowd of 4,867 people at the University of Florida. The St. Petersburg Times reported that Kevorkian expressed a desire for assisted suicide to be "a medical service" for willing patients. "My aim in helping the patient was not to cause death," the paper quoted him as saying. "My aim was to end suffering. It's got to be decriminalized." On September 2, 2009, he appeared on Fox News Channel's Your World with Neil Cavuto in his first live national television interview to discuss health care reform. On September 20, 2009, he appeared at Kutztown University of Pennsylvania to speak to a sold-out audience. Sellers of tickets claimed that all tickets were sold out within 5 minutes of the office opening. II. Render the following text. Эвтаназией – от греческих слов "eu" (хорошо) и "tha'natos" (смерть) – принято называть приближение смерти больного по его просьбе какими-либо действиями или средствами, в том числе прекращением искусственных мер по поддержанию жизни. Сам термин «эвтаназия» ввел английский философ Фрэнсис Бэкон (1561–1626) для обозначения легкой безболезненной смерти. Другое толкование этого термина относится к ХХ веку, к практике нацистской Германии. В 60-е годы ХХ столетия проблема эвтаназии вновь была поднята перед обществом уже в совершенно ином аспекте. Заметим, что сам термин «эвтаназия» отличается крайней противоречивостью, что затрудняет однозначное толкование, вызывает терминологическую путаницу. В зависимости от определения термина меняется и подход к проблеме. В теории выделяются два вида эвтаназии: пассивная эвтаназия (намеренное прекращение медиками поддерживающей терапии больного) и активная эвтаназия (введение умирающему лекарственных средств либо другие действия, которые влекут за собой быструю смерть). К активной эвтаназии часто относят и самоубийство с врачебной помощью (предоставление больному по его просьбе препаратов, сокращающих жизнь). Пассивная эвтаназия (или как ее еще называют «метод отложенного шприца») выражается в том, что прекращается оказание направленной на продление жизни медицинской помощи, что ускоряет наступление естественной смерти. Пассивная эвтаназия практикуется почти во всех странах. Основным предметом дискуссии стала эвтаназия активная, и теперь даже обычно, когда говорят об эвтаназии, то имеют в виду именно эту ее разновидность. Под активной эвтаназией (или как ее еще называют «метод наполненного шприца») понимают введение умирающему каких-либо лекарственных или иных средств либо другие действия, влекущие за собой быстрое и безболезненное наступление смерти. Активная эвтаназия может выражаться в следующих формах: �Содержание 1) «Убийство из милосердия» – происходит в тех случаях, когда врач, видя мучительные страдания безнадежно больного человека и будучи не в силах их устранить, например, вводит ему сверхдозу обезболивающего препарата, в результате чего наступает желанный смертельный исход. 2) «Самоубийство, ассистируемое врачом» – происходит, когда врач только помогает неизлечимо больному человеку покончить с жизнью. 3) Собственно активная эвтаназия – может происходить и без помощи врача. Пациент сам включает устройство, которое приводит его к быстрой и безболезненной смерти, как бы сам накладывает на себя руки. Таким образом, суть проблемы активной эвтаназии заключается в попытках оправдать умышленное причинение врачом смерти больному из сострадания или по просьбе самого умирающего либо его близких. III. Comment on the following information: За трагической судьбой француженки Шанталь Себир в марте 2008 года следили все мировые новостные программы. Пятидесятидвухлетняя женщина на протяжении семи лет страдала редкой неизлечимой формой рака носовой полости. Злокачественная опухоль изуродовала ее лицо, привела к потере зрения и вкуса и причиняла нестерпимую боль. Себир неоднократно обращалась в судебные инстанции и лично к президенту Франции Николя Саркози с просьбой разрешить ей эвтаназию – смертельную инъекцию, позволившую бы умереть быстро, легко, в окружении семьи и будучи в сознании. Но всюду она получила отказ. Все закончилось 20 марта 2008 года, когда Шанталь Себир была найдена у себя дома мертвой. При вскрытии обнаружилось, что Себир совершила самоубийство – отравилась барбитуратами. Ее ужасная участь вызвала во Франции большой резонанс. Многие политические и общественные организации стали требовать пересмотра законодательства и разрешения эвтаназии. Правительство обещало провести «анализ и оценку» действующих правил. Французским борцам за легализацию эвтаназии противостоит мощный противник – католическая церковь. Несмотря на недавнее относительное смягчение позиции в отношении пассивной эвтаназии, Ватикан по-прежнему приравнивает активную эвтаназию к убийству. Наравне с геноцидом, абортом и самоубийством. Другие христианские конфессии – впрочем, как и другие религии – в общих чертах разделяют эту позицию, что неудивительно, ведь с точки зрения верующих жизни людей принадлежат не им самим, а Богу, значит, и не людям решать, жить им или умереть. Вот только почему-то в отношении смертной казни церковь обычно отнюдь не так непримирима… Впрочем, и нерелигиозная этическая оценка эвтаназии отнюдь не однозначна. На каждый аргумент «за» найдется свой аргумент «против». Сторонники эвтаназии говорят о возможности выбора, о том, что никто не вправе заставлять безнадежных больных испытывать жестокие мучения, о том, что растительное существование и боль лишают человека достоинства, о том, что сами больные, стремясь положить конец своим страданиям, зачастую прибегают к куда более ужасным способам самоубийства, чем безболезненная инъекция. Не менее серьезны и доводы тех, кто не считает эвтаназию допустимой. Например, по их мнению, нельзя взваливать на врачей ответственность за умерщвление человека. Они обращают внимание на то, что медицина развивается очень быстро, и сегодня найдены способы лечения болезней, еще недавно считавшихся безнадежными; таким образом, отключая пациента от систем жизнеобеспечения, мы лишаем его шанса дождаться появления лекарства от его недуга. Велика также вероятность злоупотреблений со стороны родственников, оплачивающих лечение �Содержание безнадежно больного (или ожидающих наследства, которое, разумеется, будет тем меньше, чем выше медицинские расходы владельца состояния). Жадные родственники могут вступить в сговор с медицинским персоналом и оказать давление на умирающего, чтобы представить его уход из жизни как добровольный, в то время как на самом деле согласие на эвтаназию будет добыто под давлением. Но главная и действительно нерешаемая этическая проблема встает в отношении больных, которые не в состоянии самостоятельно принять решение о том, чтобы перестать жить: находящихся в коме, умственно неполноценных, включая страдающих старческим маразмом, а также совсем маленьких детей. За них, если эвтаназию легализовать, будет решать кто-то другой. Кто – врачи, родственники или представители власти? И где гарантии, что их решение будет продиктовано соображениями гуманизма и интересами больного? Ведь еще не стерлись из исторической памяти фашистские программы «оздоровления нации» путем массового уничтожения слабоумных, психически больных, инвалидов, гомосексуалистов, «расово неполноценных»… Но, несмотря на все сомнения, лично вы хотели бы иметь легальную возможность прибегнуть к помощи врачей в окончании своего земного пути, если ваш финал будет мучительным и безнадежным? Хотели бы вы, чтобы, случись вам к тому времени лишиться разума, чтобы кто-то принял такое решение за вас без страха отправиться за это в тюрьму? LISTENING COMPREHENSION “Baby euthanasia stirs heated debate Circle the letter of the best answer: 1. Official investigations have found that in four recent cases of baby euthanasia, the Dutch doctors a. acted according to Dutch laws b. acted professionally within the framework of an experimental policy c. broke the rules of Groningen University Hospital 2. Groningen University Hospital protocol is a document a. prohibiting baby euthanasia b. allowing child euthanasia within the framework of experimental policy c. allowing the Hospital’s patients’ euthanasia 3. Belgium a. doesn’t have laws regulating child euthanasia b. has laws permitting child euthanasia c. has laws allowing child euthanasia similar to those in the Netherlands 4. According to Hazel Biggs, the number of assisted deaths in Britain is a. 18,000 b. 18,000 annually c. 1,800 annually 5. The Groningen protocol a. covers all children up to age 12 b. is used only for newborns c. is used primarily for newborns but covers any child up to age 11 �Содержание 6. ________ will make the final decision whether to let a child live or die. a. parents b. doctors c. hospital officials 7. Who did not participate in writing the Protocol? a. parents b. doctors c. hospital officials 8. Euthanasia has been legal in the Netherlands since a) 1984 b) 1994 c) 1964 9. The main argument of euthanasia opponents is: a. elderly hospital patients don’t want to be euthanized b. the birthrates have declined c. financial reasons may play the decisive role in euthanasia debates 10. There is no serious push to legalize assisted suicide in Germany, because a. euthanasia was used by the Nazis as cover for wide-scale murders of disabled people b. in Germany people think that it is not right to decide themselves whether to live or to die c. Germany is among other few European countries that prohibit suicide 11. European advocates of expanding euthanasia laws say that a. their suffering is great b. they are acting in the best humanitarian tradition c. they have to face an inhuman situation VIDEO-BASED LISTENING COMPREHENSION Watch the videos “Euthanasia and Physician Assisted Suicide FAQ – Video 1”. Access mode: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kk0_X7Yb7jA “Euthanasia and Physician Assisted Suicide FAQ – Video 2” Access mode: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lkXU6XOFKoU What arguments for and against euthanasia are given in the videos? �Содержание TEXT TEN Organized Crime Organized crime is crime committed on a national or international scale by a criminal association. Such associations are characterized by the following: • hierarchy of ranks with assigned responsibilities; • the coordination of activities among subgroups; • the division of geographic territory among different associations; • a commitment to total secrecy; • efforts to corrupt law-enforcement authorities; • the use of extreme violence, including murder, against rival associations, informers and other enemies. International rings of smugglers, jewel thieves, and drug traffickers have existed throughout Europe and Asia for centuries. One of the oldest organized-crime syndicates is the Sicilian Mafia, which arose in the late Middle Ages. By 1900, the Mafia “families” of western Sicily totally controlled their local economies. When immigrants came from Sicily to the United States, there were many Mafia members among them. Gradually, they set up similar criminal operations, which expanded from bootlegging in the 1920s to gambling, narcotics, and prostitution, and the Mafia, or Cosa Nostra, became the largest U.S. syndicated crime organization. About 24 Mafia “families” controlled operations in the U.S. At the beginning of the 21st century, the Mafia’s power was greatly diminished through convictions of top officials, defections, and murderous internal disputes. In Japan, the most powerful is the criminal association of yakuza. Yakuza are organized into some 2,000 gangs, most affiliated under the umbrella of one of a dozen conglomerated gangs. Yakuza gangs are rigidly hierarchical and follow strict codes of behavior. They traditionally engage in such organized-crime pursuits as extortion, blackmail, smuggling, prostitution, drugs, and gambling. They control many restaurants, bars, trucking companies, and taxi fleets in Japanese cities. In the 1980s, they also became involved in land speculation. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, organized crime became immensely powerful in Russia, taking advantage of a weak and impoverished government and widespread official corruption. Russian organized criminal groups are engaged in such offences as cargo theft, fraud, robbery, kidnapping for ransom, and the demanding of “protection” payments. Their principle source of income derives from the supply of illegal goods and services for which there is continuous public demand, such as drugs, prostitution, gambling, etc. ENGAGING THE TEXT 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. What is organized crime? What are the characteristic features of syndicated crime associations? What do you know about the Sicilian Mafia? What is the most powerful criminal association in Japan? Why do you think organized crime became immensely powerful in Russia in the late 20th and early 21st centuries? �Содержание EXTENDING THE CRITICAL CONTEXT I. Render the following text. МАФИЯ, ОРГАНИЗОВАННАЯ ПРЕСТУПНОСТЬ (mafia, organized crime) – иерархически организованные группы преступников, коллективно и систематически занимающиеся криминальными промыслами. Термин «мафия» появился в середине XIX в. и первоначально использовался только для обозначения организованной преступности на Сицилии (Италия). Этимология этого термина из сицилийского диалекта неясна, чаще всего его переводят как «защитник, покровитель». После того? как в середине XX в. сицилийская организованная преступность завоевала громкую «популярность» в Европе, а в преступном мире США лидирующую роль начала играть организация итало-американцев, слово «мафия» стало нарицательным (особенно в СМИ) для обозначения любой сильной преступной организации. Под «организованной преступностью» криминологи подразумевают деятельность только профессиональных преступников (гангстеров), отличая от нее «беловоротничковую» (экономическую) преступность. В быту и в СМИ, «мафией» часто называют любые коллективы правонарушителей, имеющие большую власть (в нашей стране пишут, например, о «чиновничьей мафии» или даже «милицейской мафии»). Крупных преступных организаций, занимающихся криминальными промыслами в международном масштабе, относительно немного. Наиболее известны такие организации, как мафия Сицилии, американская «Коза Ностра», японские якудза, китайские триады. В последней трети XX в. все более активную роль стали играть новые преступные организации – латиноамериканские наркокартели, русская и албанская мафия, нигерийские преступные организации. Вопреки мнению о вездесущности мафии в большинстве стран мира крупные и влиятельные мафиозные организации отсутствуют. Мафия как система криминальных фирм. Организованная преступность столь же стара, как и цивилизация: пиратские флотилии и разбойничьи банды встречаются уже на самых первых страницах истории. Однако современная организованная преступность возникла лишь примерно сто лет тому назад и имеет принципиальные отличия от преступных организаций доиндустриальных обществ. Традиционная организованная преступность была всецело основана на насилии. Современная организованная преступность, напротив, совершает главным образом «преступления без жертв» – занимается деятельностью, от которой выигрывают (хотя бы иллюзорно) не только преступники, но и те, кто пользуются их услугами. Отечественные и зарубежные криминологи единодушно подчеркивают следующие основные характеристики организованной преступности: а) устойчивость и долговременность, б) стремление к максимизации прибыли, �Содержание в) планирование своей деятельности, г) разделение труда, дифференциация на руководителей разного уровня и исполнителей – специалистов разного профиля, д) создание денежных страховых запасов («общаков»). Все эти признаки копируют характерные особенности легального капиталистического предпринимательства. Это не случайно: современная организованная преступность является, по существу, особой отраслью бизнеса – экономической деятельностью профессиональных преступников, направленной на удовлетворение антиобщественных и остродефицитных потребностей рядовых граждан (производство запрещенных законом товаров и услуг). Преступные организации делят сферы влияния (территории, виды деятельности), договариваясь о правилах сотрудничества и конкуренции. Блюстители порядка часто включаются в мафиозную сеть – они получают от мафии взятки (или иные полезные услуги, например, помощь в сдерживании неорганизованной преступности) за то, что не проявляют «чрезмерного» служебного рвения. Неорганизованные преступники также участвуют в системе негласных контрактов как своего рода «субподрядчики» преступных организаций. Получая право действовать на территории, контролируемой преступной организации, неорганизованные преступники платят ей за это «дань». В результате налаживания мафией системы негласных договорных отношений создается атмосфера своего рода «общественного согласия». �Содержание INDIVIDUAL PROJECT Presentation Make a presentation on one of the topics related to crime (e.g. terrorism, drug trafficking, kidnapping, hijacking, etc.) �Содержание SECTION 2. PUNISHMENT Vocabulary Vocabulary Exercises Text One. Social Morality, Rules and Laws Text Two. Imposition of Penalties. Civil and Criminal Penalties Text Three. Imprisonment Text Four. Death Penalty Text Five. Crime Victims Fight Back Text Six. Role of Police Force Revision exercises �Содержание VOCABULARY 1. to accuse smb of smth / to charge smb with smth – обвинять кого-то в чем-то • the accused – обвиняемый • claimant/plaintiff – истец • defendant – ответчик/подзащитный • suspect – подозреваемый • guilty of – виновный в чем-то • guilty of theft – виновен в краже • the defendant pleaded (not) guilty – обвиняемый (не) признал себя виновным 2. lawyer/barrister (Br.) / attorney (Am.) – адвокат 3. prosecutor/prosecuting attorney – прокурор 4. Prosecutor General (Russia)/ Attorney General (Br., Am.) – генеральный прокурор 5. to be found guilty / not guilty – признать виновным / невиновным 6. to acquit a person – оправдать, признать невиновным 7. to reach / return / give a verdict – вынести вердикт 8. sentence – приговор • pass/pronounce sentence (on smb.) – огласить приговор • to impose a sentence on smb. – вынести приговор • a heavy / light sentence – суровое / мягкое наказание • a jail sentence – тюремное заключение • to serve a sentence – отбывать наказание • accumulative sentences – совокупность приговоров (с началом отбытия последующего по отбытии предыдущего) • to commute / reduce a sentence – смягчить приговор • to vacate a sentence – отменить приговор • to sentence in absence – приговорить заочно 9. bail – залог • to release smb. on bail / bond – освободить под залог • to post/put up bail – вносить залог • to surrender to one’s bail – явиться в суд в назначенный срок (об отпущенном под залог) • to jump/forfeit one’s bail – скрыться от правосудия, не явиться в суд 10. to give a written undertaking not to leave a place – давать подписку о невыезде �Содержание 11. probation – условное освобождение преступника на поруки, пробация • to be/be put on probation – быть условно осужденным • probation officer – должностное лицо, осуществляющее надзор за условно осужденными 12. parole – условно-досрочное освобождение • to release smb. on parole – освободить досрочно • to be eligible for parole – иметь право на досрочное освобождение 13. extenuating circumstances – смягчающие вину обстоятельства 14. aggravating circumstances – отягчающие вину обстоятельства 15. penalty – наказание 16. fine – штраф 17. recompense/compensation/remuneration/restitution – возмещение убытков 18. community service – общественные работы 19. deprivation of liberty – лишение свободы 20. confiscation of proceeds gained by a criminal – конфискация доходов, полученных нелегальным путем 21. forfeiture of property involved in the commission of crime – конфискация имущества, использованного как орудие преступления 22. imprisonment/custody/confinement/incarceration – заключение 23. a penitentiary term / a term of imprisonment – срок заключения 24. life imprisonment – пожизненное заключение 25. corporal punishment – телесное наказание 26. penal servitude – каторжные работы 27. capital punishment / death penalty – смертная казнь 28. correctional institution – исправительное учреждение 29. maximum security prison – тюрьма строгого режима 30. training school – исправительная школа (для несовершеннолетних преступников) 31. escape – побег 32. riot – бунт, мятеж, массовые беспорядки 33. inmate – заключенный �Содержание VOCABULARY EXERCISES 2.1. Give synonyms or synonymous expressions: Compensation; bail; to reach a verdict; to acquit a person; to reduce a sentence; death penalty; a term of imprisonment; to post bail; to pronounce sentence; to jump one’s bail; penitentiary; confinement. 2.2. Give corresponding nouns: To acquit; to impose; eligible; extenuating; to aggravate; to release; to deprive; to commit; to punish. 2.3. Match the words “prison” and “jail” with the following definitions: a. a place under the jurisdiction of a local government for the confinement of persons awaiting trial or those convicted of minor crimes; b. an institution for confinement of persons convicted of serious crimes. 2.4. Express the following idea in one word: 5) Infliction of physical pain upon a person’s body as punishment for a crime. 6) The system of allowing certain law-breakers not to go to prison, if they behave well and report regularly. 7) The letting out of prisoners before the official period of their imprisonment has ended, on condition that they behave well. 8) A reward or payment (for trouble, loss, inconvenience, etc.). 9) An order given by a judge which fixes a punishment for a criminal declared to be guilty in court. 10) The official decision made by a jury in a court of law at the end of a trial about whether the person is guilty or not guilty. 11) An amount of money paid as a punishment. 12) Facts that might excuse a person’s bad behavior. 13) Money left with a court of law so that a prisoner can be set free until he/she is tried. 14) Flight from confinement. 15) A correctional institution for the custody and reeducation of juvenile delinquents. 2.5 Translate from Russian into English: 1) Сторона истца настаивала на дополнительном расследовании, но судья отклонил эту просьбу, и обвиняемый был отпущен в зале суда. �Содержание 2) В Советском Союзе прокуроры часто переезжали из одного населенного пункта в другой, таким образом власть пыталась предотвратить коррупцию. 3) Многие люди серьезно считают, что лучший метод борьбы с малолетними правонарушителями – телесное наказание и домашний арест. 4) Тюремные бунты часто провоцируются самими охранниками, которые превышают свои полномочия и жестоко обращаются с заключенными. 5) Обвиняемый так и не признал своей вины, однако суд счел доказательства достаточно вескими и приговорил бывшего военного снайпера к 15 годам за убийство по найму. 6) Единственный осужденный по делу о теракте в Беслане был приговорен к смертной казни. Однако, в связи с продолжающимся мораторием на смертную казнь, наказание было изменено на пожизненное заключение. 7) Незнание закона не освобождает от ответственности и не является смягчающим обстоятельством. 8) Штрафы могут назначаться за мелкие правонарушения, например, курение в неположенном месте, распитие спиртных напитков в общественных местах, нарушение правил дорожного движения. �Содержание TEXT ONE Social Morality, Rules and Laws In all societies, relations between people are regulated by prescriptive laws. Some of them are customs – that is, informal rules of social and moral behavior. Some are rules we accept if we belong to particular social institutions, such as religious, educational and cultural groups. And some are precise laws made by nations and enforced against all citizens within their power. Customs need not be made by governments, and they need not be written down. We learn how we are expected to behave in society through the instruction of family and teachers, the advice of friends, and our experiences in dealing with strangers. Sometimes, we can break these rules without suffering any penalty. But if we continually break these rules, or break a very important one, other members of society may ridicule us, criticize us, act violently toward us or refuse to have anything to do with us. The ways in which people talk, eat, and drink, work, and relax together are usually guided by many such informal rules which have very little to do with laws created by governments. The rules of social institutions tend to be more formal than customs, carrying precise penalties for those who break them. They are not, however, enforceable by any political authority. Sports clubs, for example, often have detailed rules for their members. But if a member breaks a rule and refuses to accept any punishment, the club may have no power other than to ask him or her to leave the club. However, when governments make laws for their citizens, they use a system of courts backed by the power of the police to enforce these laws. Sometimes laws are simply an attempt to implement common sense. It is obvious to most people that dangerous driving should be punished; that fathers should provide financial support for their children if they desert their families; that a person should be compensated for losses when someone else breaks an agreement with him or her. But in order to be enforced, common sense needs to be defined in law, and when definitions are being written, it becomes clear that common sense is not such a simple matter. Instead, it is a complex skill based upon long observation of many different people in different situations. Laws based upon common sense don’t necessarily look much like common sense when they have been put into words! The laws made by the government of one country are often very different from the laws of another country. English law has directly influenced the law of former British colonies such as Australia, India, Canada and the nation where law plays a bigger part in everyday life than anywhere else, the United States. The legal systems of Western Europe and Japan come from different traditions. Governments have many ways of making sure that citizens obey the law: • they make the public aware of what the law is; • they use police forces to investigate crimes and catch criminals; • they authorize courts to complete the investigation of criminal and civil offences and to pass sentences to punish the guilty and deter others; • they make efforts to re-educate and reform people who have broken the law; • they try to encourage social support for law and order. The laws of all countries are to be found in written records – the legal codes of countries with continental systems, the statutes and case judgments of common law countries, warnings on official forms, and notices in public buildings. �Содержание Many people do not find it easy to read them, but ignorance of the law is almost never a defense for breaking it. Governments usually expect citizens to be aware of the laws which affect their lives. ENGAGING THE TEXT 1. Speak about customs, rules and laws. 2. How can governments make citizens know and obey the law? 3. Is ignorance of the law a defense for breaking it? EXTENDING THE CRITICAL CONTEXT I. Comment on the following regulations: In California, restrictions on smoking have steadily increased. In 1995, the Legislature passed a ban on smoking in most indoor workplaces, which was expanded to include bars, casinos and restaurants a year later. In 2001, a law was passed banning smoking on playgrounds. Cal State’s Board of Trustees were unanimous when they passed new regulations encouraging the system’s 23 campuses to tighten outside smoking bans. State law requires smokers to stand 5 feet from entrance of public building before lighting up, but Cal State’s regulations allow campuses to bump up that distance by 20 feet or more. The final decision is up to each school president, after input from students. Thus, for example, Cal State Northridge requires all smokers to remain 30 feet from entrances to campus buildings, and Cal Poly San Luis Obispo requires smokers to stand 15 feet from residence halls. II. Share your opinions with peers. Name any customs or rules regulating the life of your University. What do you think of them? What may happen if you break the University rules? �Содержание TEXT TWO Imposition of Penalties. Civil and Criminal Penalties Punishment may be imposed only on a person found guilty of committing a crime. In passing sentence the court takes into consideration the following: • the degree to which the crime committed is a danger to society; • the character of the guilty person; • attendant extenuating or aggravating circumstances. The circumstances extenuating criminal responsibility include: the guilty person’s prevention of harmful consequences resulting from the crime committed, his voluntary recompense or redemption of the damage done; the commission of a crime as the result of the coincidence of grave personal or family circumstances; the commission of a crime under threats or compulsion, or by force of material or other dependence; the commission of a crime under the influence of strong mental excitement caused by unlawful acts on the part of the victim; and the commission of a crime by an expectant mother. The circumstances aggravating a crime include: the commission of a crime by a person who has previously committed a crime; the commission of a crime by an organized group; the commission of a crime having grave consequences; the commission of a crime for personal gain or other base motives involving excessive cruelty or the abuse of the victim or that takes advantage of disaster, etc. There are several kinds of punishment available to the courts. In civil cases, the most common punishment is a fine. For criminal offences fines are also often used when the offence is not a very serious one and when the offender has not been in trouble before. Another kind of punishment available in some countries is community service. This requires the offender to do a certain amount of unpaid work, usually for a social institution such as a hospital. The court may order an offender to pay compensation for personal injury, loss or damage resulting from an offence. Courts may also order the confiscation of proceeds gained by a criminal from drug trafficking and other offences such as robbery, fraud, blackmail, and insider dealing in shares. In certain circumstances courts may also order forfeiture of property involved in the commission of crime. Police cautions are used particularly for young offenders; the caution is a form of warning and no court action is taken. For more serious crimes the usual punishment is imprisonment. Some prison sentences are suspended: the offender is not sent to prison if he keeps out of trouble for a fixed period of time, but if he does offend again both the suspended sentence and any new will be imposed. The length of sentences varies from a few days to a lifetime. However a life sentence may allow the prisoner to be released after a suitably long period if a review (parole) board agrees his detention no longer serves a purpose. In some countries, such as the Netherlands, living conditions in prison are fairly good because it is felt that deprivation of liberty is punishment in itself and should not be so harsh that it reduces the possibility of the criminal re-educating and reforming himself. In other countries, conditions are very bad. In some countries, there are such penalties as exile, restricted residence, disqualification from a specific office or activity, deprivation of military or other special rank. Some states have corporal punishment. In Malaysia, Singapore, Pakistan, Zambia, Zimbabwe, among others, courts may sentence offenders to be caned or whipped. In �Содержание Saudi Arabia theft and possession of alcohol may be punished by cutting off the offender’s hand or foot. The ultimate penalty is death (capital punishment). ENGAGING THE TEXT 1. What does the court take into consideration in passing sentence? 2. What circumstances are considered to be extenuating criminal responsibility? 3. What circumstances are considered to be aggravating criminal responsibility? 4. What punishments can be imposed on the offenders? EXTENDING THE CRITICAL CONTEXT I. Case study: Small group discussion. Team up with your peers and discuss the following criminal cases. Decide whether the punishment was FAIR TOO HEAVY TOO LIGHT ABSURD What punishment would you impose in each case if you were a judge? 1. South Africa: A South African serial killer convicted on 16 counts of murder was sentenced to almost 800 years in prison. Lazarus Mazingane, 28, was convicted on a total of 74 charges, including rape, murder, attempted murder and aggravated assault. He terrorized the industrial enclave south of Johannesburg from 1995 to 1998, stalking, raping and strangling women. (The Times, 2004) 2. Beijing: Four teenagers were found guilty of strangling a 16-year-old student they had originally kidnapped for ransom. Two were sentenced to life in prison, one to fifteen years and the fourth to two years. (The Times, 2004) �Содержание 3. Kano, Nigeria: Islamic extremists killed a man for defiling the Koran. A Christian was lynched in Bichi village for allegedly tearing a piece of the Koran to use after visiting the lavatory. (The Times, 2004) 4. Tehran, Iran: Mahammed Bijeh, 22, who confessed to raping and killing 16 children, has been given 16 death sentences. An accomplice, Ali Gholampour, was sentenced to 15 years in prison and 100 lashes for helping to kidnap some of the children. (The Times, 2004) 5. Cardiff: A masked rapist escaped justice for 15 years after attacking a woman at knifepoint in her home. But yesterday Aaron Matthias, 42, was jailed for seven years, trapped by a DNA sample, taken when caught shoplifting. (The Times, 2004) 6. Great Britain: Russel Ellis, 26, a driver who killed a young woman when he fell asleep at the wheel of his 17-tonne lorry on his way back to Frome, Somerset, was sent to prison for 18 months. The court heard that Ellis had been up all night text messaging his girlfriend before the crash that killed Emma Kelly. (The Times, 2004) 7. Washington: In 2000, John Silva, 15, kidnapped and strangled a 12-year-old neighbor. He is serving life without parole. (Los Angeles Times, 2002) 8. Washington: Nathaniel Brazil was 13 when he shot his teacher to death in 2000. He was convicted of second-degree murder and sentenced to 28 years in prison. (Los Angeles Times, 2002) 9. Hillsborough County, FLA.: For a drunken-driving accident that killed a mother and her two children, James D. Glover was sentenced to 17 years in prison. Yet Glover was released from prison after 20 months. (Reader’s Digest, 1995) 10. London: A gang has been jailed for conspiring to steal luxury cars worth more than £ 600,000 from showrooms in London, the South and the Midlands. Melissa John, 24, Samuel Egbo, 25, and Anthony Hawes, 21, were sentenced to between 15 months and five years by Southhampton Crown Court. (The Times, 2004) �Содержание TEXT THREE Imprisonment Most people’s concept of correctional institutions such as prisons, jails, reformatories, and training schools is based on old movies or television programs. Generally, correctional institutions are in the news media when there are escapes, riots, or items of sensational scandal. Until the late 18th century, prisons were used mainly for the confinement of debtors who could not meet their obligations, of accused persons waiting to be tried, and of convicts who were waiting for their sentences of death or banishment to be put into effect. There were institutions like the Bastille in France and the Tower of London, but they held mainly political prisoners, not ordinary criminals. The closest thing to the modern prison was the workhouse, a place of hard labor almost always for minor offenders. People who committed serious crimes almost always received corporal or capital punishment and those who committed petty offences were usually fined. Later, imprisonment itself came to be accepted as a means of punishing convicted prisoners. Early U.S. prisons were built during the 18th – 19th centuries and patterned after the “Auburn System”, which involved tiers of open cells, strict discipline and harsh punishments such as solitary confinement. Obviously, these institutions were maximum security facilities. This means they were built with the idea of making it difficult, if not impossible, for prisoners, who were kept in isolation, to escape. Sometimes prisoners were permitted to work together, but only in silence. At the end of the 19th century, prison reformers successfully advocated segregation of criminals by type of crime, age and sex. They also advocated rewards for good behavior, parole, and vocational training. Trying to describe modern correctional institutions is somewhat difficult because they are diverse in their physical facilities and in their approach to care and treatment of inmates. In the United States, the classification of correctional institutions according to degrees of custody rates all institutions on a range from maximum security to medium security, and to minimum security, depending on the physical structure of the prison; the extent and nature of facilities for watching prisoners; the range of activities available to prisoners; and so on. In Great Britain, there are two different types of prison – open and closed. In a closed prison, prisoners are given very little freedom. In some, a prisoner may be locked up for 23 hours a day. More usually, prisoners spend three hours outside their cells, when they exercise, eat, receive visitors, watch television or chat with other inmates. Some prisoners are able to have jobs within a prison – but not many. Although prisoners in open prisons are locked up at night, for the rest of the time they are free within the boundaries of the prison building, where they can exercise, socialize or study. Some prisoners may even be allowed out of the grounds to study or do community work. The UK has a higher percentage of its population in prison than any other EC country, and in the United States, there are more than twice as many inmates as in any Western European country, in proportion to population. One consequence of this is overcrowding in prisons and there is great concern over conditions. Many prisons were built over a hundred years ago. Prison cells which were designed for only one inmate are often shared by three or four. There is a lack of washing and toilet facilities. Conditions in prisons are often so bad that prisoners commit suicide. Bad conditions have also led to a series of riots recently. �Содержание Governments think that the possible ways to improve the situation are: • building new prisons; • expanding and modernizing old ones; • attracting private companies to run prisons, though many people are against the idea of running prisons as businesses; • using custody only for offenders convicted of serious offences or where the public needs to be protected from a dangerous offender. The term imposed on a criminal should be as short as possible, consistent with the courts’ duty to protect the interests of the public and to punish and deter the criminal. • avoiding sentencing guilty people to imprisonment but using alternatives, from community service to probation at home under close supervision. For example, some counties in New York State have used a new device, allowing people sentenced to imprisonment to stay in their homes for fixed periods instead, and providing them with electronic bracelets linked to a computer so as to monitor their movements (electronic tagging). A home prisoner who breaks a personal curfew must go to gaol. • releasing prisoners prematurely. ENGAGING THE TEXT 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. What were prisons used for until the late 18th century? What were early American prisons like? What did prison reformers advocate at the end of the 19th century? How are prisons classified in the U.S.? What types of prisons are there in Great Britain? What factors aggravate the life in prison and what are the possible ways of improving the situation? EXTENDING THE CRITICAL CONTEXT I. Comment on the following quotations from The Economist: a) “Because prisons cost a fortune, deters not very well, and may build a more effective sort of criminal, let it be a last resort: aim to send fewer people to jail in the first place. Explore other - cheaper, more effective – possibilities first. Try special courts for drug offenders, use fines, confiscation of property, electronic tagging, community service, and so on. At the same time, however, be willing to impose longer sentences on some persistent, and especially on violent, offenders who have shown that they will remain a threat to others.” b) “The extraordinary cost of keeping somebody locked up is clear; the corresponding benefits are less so. �Содержание There is no persuasive evidence that greater imprisonment acts as a significant deterrent to would-be criminals. As for rehabilitation, rates of recidivism indicate that often a harder, better connected and more professional law-breaker emerges than the one who went in.” II. Discuss the following questions: • Do prisons teach prisoners to lead a good and useful life? • Do you think criminals should be treated as “human beings rather than cattle”, or do you think they deserve any punishment they receive? • What sport and recreational equipment and activities should inmates be offered in prisons? • Do you think it’s a good idea to separate “good” prisoners from trouble-makers? III. Comment on the following articles: Must Our Prisons Be Resorts? Mercer Regional Correctional Facility is a complex of tidy brick buildings situated in the rolling countryside of western Pennsylvania. From a distance, a visitor might mistake this state prison with its manicured green lawns for one of the nearby liberal-arts colleges. One of the three full-time “activities directors” shows me the Recreation Building. “Nothing cheap here,” he says proudly, pointing out the full-sized basketball court, handball area, punching bag and volleyball net. There are enough barbells to “bulk up” 15 criminals at a time; others can use weight-lifting machines. Nine electronic exercise bicycles and four stair-type aerobics machines face a TV, all part of the Leisure Fitness Program. Outside the men can play softball and sharpen their tennis skills. Emotional problems? Five psychologists and ten counselors are there for inmates. Housing about a third of the inmates are two dormitories with eight-by-ten-foot “rooms” (not cells) equipped with desks and bookshelves. As we enter one room, a chubby, middle-aged man turns down the volume on his TV set. This housing unit, the guide says, shelters a “peer group” with “special needs”: largely rapists and child molesters. Mercer is not an exceptional institution; it is, in fact, typical. A nation-wide Reader’s Digest survey shows that in most prisons, felons have access to a startling array of creature comforts. Hard labor is out, physical fitness is in. From aerobics to strength training to boxing, today’s thugs and armed robbers can return to the streets bigger, stronger and faster than ever. When they’re tired of working out, they can join theater groups, take music lessons or college courses – all for free. Or they can tune in the latest R-rated movies. The overall cost of these prison amenities is soaring. They take up a huge portion of state correctional budgets, while thousans of violent criminals are released each year for lack of space. Inside New York’s maximum-security Attica prison, which houses many most violent felons, there are three small white buildings, which some staffers call “the hotel.” Here, a counselor schedules up to 18 inmates per week for sex with their wives. At the high-security Sullivan prison in Fallsburg, N.Y., twin yards filled with barbells and recreational equipment also have outdoor TVs, so inmates working out don’t miss their favourite shows. Inside, prisoners “jam” in a music room crammed with electric guitars, amplifiers, drums and keyboards. In Pennsylvania, most felons can get in-cell cable TV, including premium channels, at a huge discount. The maximum- �Содержание security federal penitentiary at Lewisburg, Pa., offers Home Box Office and Cinemax to its resident drug dealers and killers. “We must attempt to modify criminal behavior and hopefully not return a more damaged human being to society than we received.” It’s a statement repeated over and over by prison administrators as the reason for the vast array of recreational and physical amenities available to convicts. (Reader’s Digest) It’s a Privilege for Prisoners to Be in Honor Yard. “Bad-boys-turned-good” program gives inmates who just want to serve their time a heaven from violence. But they must follow strict rules. Now, McCoy, 36, believes he has found a heaven. He is one of 576 inmates in the California State Prison at Lancaster’s Honor Yard, a pilot program that separates “good” prisoners from those looking for trouble. Since it began in 2000, violence and drug use have dramatically decreased, officials said. “It’s for level-headed guys who just want to do our time and hopefully parole,” said McCoy, who is serving a life sentence without parole for murder. “I’d rather fight the courts than fight other prisoners.” Incarcerated since 1986, McCoy transferred through three prisons before landing in Lancaster. Along the way he witnessed stabbings, shootings, beatings, and various other bloody assaults between inmates. “I’d always worry about watching my back,” he said. “It was stressful.” The Lancaster prison was built in 1993 to house 2,200 prisoners, and now holds 4,200 men. About 90 % of the prisoners in this maximum-security facility are “lifers” – men living out life sentences for crimes such as rape and murder. The Honor Yard is housed separately; it’s a five-building facility with its own yard on the west edge of the prison. Prisoners must apply and promise in writing to avoid violence, drug activity or other misbehavior. They must participate in a work program or take classes, and their progress is regularly reviewed. If they commit a serious infraction, they are booted from the yard. In return for good behavior, inmates are given an environment in which they can feel safe. “Guys can sit around and not worried, looking over their shoulder,” said Father Thomas White, Honor Yard chaplain. “You can even see someone taking a nap out on the lawn. The tension is gone from the place.” (Los Angeles Times) German Pensioners Turn To Crime 2003, Germany: Number of prisoners – 62,594 Number of prisoners aged over 60 – 5,955 Germany is planning to build a prison exclusively for wayward old age pensioners in response to a “grey crime wave”. Increasingly elderly robbers have been holding up banks and shops to pad out their retirement funds. Last week police captured a three-man gang – aged between 63 and 74 – as they prepared to storm a bank in northwest Germany. It would have been their sixth raid. Inspector Ulrich Biermann who led the Grandpa Dossier operation, said: “These were not loveable old codgers. �Содержание Anyone who enters a bank with a raised pistol has to be taken seriously.” Two of the gang carried grenades and a hammer during the holds-up, which brought in at least € 400,000. One pensioner held up shops by pointing a gun-like carrot through his pocket. Police in Düsseldorf have been hunting a 70-year-old grandmother who used a toy pistol to hold up at least four banks. The retirement prison is supposed to deter the most desperate. Many prosecutors drop charges even after a pensioner confesses, because a jail sentence would be a disproportionately stern punishment. The state of Lower Saxony said yesterday that it was searching for a site for a prison that would have wheelchair access and be close to hospitals. The model is Onichimi prison in Japan. Last year 30,000 Japanese aged over 65 were arrested and the number of elderly suspects has risen by 320 per cent in the last decade. Researchers at the University of Fukushima say that prison is seen as an attractive option for retirement, compared with rundown council housing estates with broken lifts. Jutta Rosendahl, of the Lower Saxony Justice Ministry, said: “We have to find an adequate balance, taking into account elderly needs but not so comfortable that the prison can no longer act as deterrent.” (The Times, Nov. 16, 2004) • Why did Germany decide to build a prison exclusively for wayward old age pensioners? • Why do many prosecutors drop charges even after a pensioner confesses? • What requirements should retirement prisons meet? • Are there any prisoners aged over 60 in Russia? • What do you think about retirement prisons? Can you give any arguments for / against such institutions? VIDEO-BASED LISTENING COMPREHENSION Watch the video “10 Luxurious Prisons Only The Richest Can Afford”. Access mode: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-x3-5oXoevM Be ready to speak about the following prisons: • Sollentuna Prison (Sweden) • Addiewell Prison (Scotland) • Aranjuez Prison (Spain) • JVA Fuhlsbuettel Prison (Germany) • Champ-Dollon Prison (Geneva, Switzerland) • Bastoy Prison (Bastoy Island, Norway) • Halden Prison (Norway) • Justice Center Leoben (Austria) �Содержание TEXT FOUR Death Penalty As far back as the Ancient Laws of China, the death penalty has been established as a punishment for crimes. The first death sentence historically recorded occurred in Egypt in the 16th century BC, where the wrongdoer, a member of nobility, was accused of magic, and ordered to take his own life. In the 5th century BC, the Roman Law of the Twelve Tablets codified the death penalty. The death penalty was different for nobility, freemen, and slaves, and was punishment for crimes such as publication of libels, insulting songs, the cutting or grazing of crops planted by a farmer, the burning of a house or a stack of corn near a house, perjury, making disturbances at night in the city, theft by a slave, willful murder of a freemen or a parent, etc. Death was often cruel and included crucifixion, drowning at sea, burial alive, beating to death, and impalement. In the 7th century BC, Draconian Code of Athens made death the penalty for every crime committed. Britain has a long history of punishment by death. About 450 BC, the death penalty was often enforced by throwing the condemned into a quagmire. In the 11th century AD, hanging from gallows was the most frequent execution method, but William the Conqueror opposed taking life except in war, and ordered no person to be executed for any offence. However, he allowed criminals to be mutilated for their crimes. During the Middle Ages, capital punishment in Britain was accompanied by torture. Burning was the punishment for women’s high treason and men were hanged, drawn and quartered. Beheading was generally accepted for the upper classes. Boiling to death was another penalty approved in 1531. The first recorded legal execution of a criminal in the English American colonies was in 1622. Between 1636–1647, the death penalty was meted out for pre-meditated murder, sodomy, witchcraft, adultery, idolatry, blasphemy, assault in anger, rape, man stealing, perjury in a capital trial, rebellion, manslaughter, poisoning, and bestiality. In 1794, the U.S. state of Pennsylvania became the first jurisdiction to restrict the death penalty to first-degree murder, and in 1846, Michigan abolished capital punishment for all murders and other common crimes. In 1863, Venezuela became the first country to abolish capital punishment for all crimes, and in 1867, Portugal was the first European country to abolish the death penalty. During the last third of the 20th century, the number of abolitionist countries increased. By the 21st century, 35 countries (including almost every European nation) abolished the death penalty; 18 retained it only for exceptional crimes such as wartime offences. Despite the movement toward abolition, many countries have retained capital punishment, and some have extended its scope. Death sentences are regularly carried out in China, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, and Iran. Execution methods include hanging, electrocution, gassing, lethal injection, beheading (decapitation), stoning and shooting. In Great Britain, the death penalty has been repealed for almost all offences. It remains on the statute book for the offences of treason, piracy with violence and some other treasonable and mutinous offences. However, it has not been used for any of these offences since 1946. In the United States, three-fourths of the states and the federal government retain the death penalty. In the “liberal” climate of the 1960s some states abolished the capital punishment, and in others, it was more and more rarely used. In eight years, 1968–1975, no execution was carried out anywhere in the United States. Meanwhile the number of murders was growing fast, and in 1975 passed 21,000 – three times as many as twenty years before. Opinion polls were showing massive support for the return of the use of capital punishment. In 1975, the Supreme Court made a new ruling which allowed the death penalty to be used in certain circumstances, �Содержание and one man was executed in Florida in 1976. Several others followed, and in the three years 1984–1986 there were 57 executions, in a dozen states. Some countries retain death penalty but have imposed a moratorium on executions. People are not executed even when a death sentence has been passed. As a result, the number of people sentenced but still alive (death row) is growing from year to year. Some prisoners live under sentence of death for many years. This fact is very often used as an argument against the death penalty. Opponents say that capital punishment involves not only the pain of dying, but also the mental anguish of waiting, sometimes for years, to know if and when the sentence will be carried out. ENGAGING THE TEXT Engaging the text 1. For what crimes was the death penalty employed in ancient Greece and Rome? What were the methods of execution? 2. What methods of execution existed in Britain in early times? 3. What crimes were punished by death in the English American colonies in the 17th century? 4. What nations were the first to abolish the death penalty? 5. How many countries do not employ the death penalty today? 6. In what countries are death sentences regularly carried out? 7. What execution methods exist around the world? 8. Does Great Britain have the death penalty today? 9. Why was the death penalty abolished and then reintroduced in some states of the U.S.? 10. What is a death row? EXTENDING THE CRITICAL CONTEXT I. Comment on the following article. 29-летнюю Ма Вейхуа арестовали на вокзале в городе Ланьчжоу. Под юбкой у нее нашли спрятанный героин. Хранение наркотиков является в Китае одним из 69 преступлений, за которые полагается смертная казнь. Но случай Ма был особенным. На момент ареста она была беременна, а уголовный кодекс запрещает казнить беременных женщин. Однако полицию это не остановило: Ма поместили в больницу, где ее сразу же подвергли анестезии и сделали аборт. Представитель полиции города Ланчьжоу заявил, что «уголовный кодекс не должен становиться инструментом в руках торговцев наркотиками стремящихся избежать наказания». �Содержание Дело Ма вновь заставило заговорить о проблеме смертной казни в Китае. Здесь ежегодно путем расстрела или смертельной инъекции казнят 10 тысяч человек, что в пять раз больше, чем во всех остальных странах мира вместе взятых. Однако, несмотря на недовольство интеллектуалов и наиболее просвещенных руководителей, можно сказать, что у смертной казни в этой стране большое будущее. На днях в городе Чанша, столице провинции Хунань, около ста детей получили возможность сходить на необычную экскурсию. На стадионе вместе с другими 2500 зрителями учащиеся начальной школы смогли воочию увидеть казнь шести осужденных. Подобные публичные мероприятия учащаются в дни национальных праздников. Китай не считается страной с высоким уровнем преступности. Все дело в судебной системе, которая чуть что нажимает на курок. В список преступлений, за которые можно получить смертный приговор, входят не особо тяжкие преступления, такие как контрабанда, сутенерство, осквернение могил, подделка банкнот. В последнее время количество преступлений, за которые можно поплатится жизнью, увеличилось еще больше – в 2003 году в списке появилось «сознательное распространение SARS» и «производство токсичного сырья». В стране, как утверждает «Международная амнистия», не существует презумпции невиновности, показания, полученные под пытками, имеют силу, адвокаты не обязаны присутствовать на допросах, а политическая власть вмешивается в судебную систему. Кроме того, есть подозрения, что смертная казнь особенно часто применяется в отношении представителей национальных меньшинств при малейшем подозрении в подрывной деятельности. Но в последнее время кое-что начало сдвигаться. В газете «Пекинские новости» недавно был опубликован призыв самых именитых юристов страны отменить смертную казнь за экономические преступления. Однако эти активисты не учли общественное мнение. Сайты sohu.com и sina.com были наводнены протестами. 5000 тысяч человек выступили против помилования. «Безрассудно отменять смертную казнь для политиков, которые берут взятки, – пишет один молодой человек. – Эти предложения игнорируют чувства рядовых граждан, которые страдают от распространения коррупции». Некоторые читатели опасаются, что юристы заодно с коррупционерами, для которых, по их мнению, недостаточно даже пожизненного заключения. На самом деле, по статистике, тех, кто берет взятки, редко ставят к стенке. А когда это все-таки происходит, речь идет о функционерах среднего уровня, которых бросают на съедение общественному мнению, чтобы создать впечатление нещадной борьбы с коррупцией. Лю Ренвен, юрист, активный сторонник отмены смертной казни, говорит, что сдерживающий эффект смертной казни, когда речь идет о коррупции, ограничен. Известны случаи, когда после казни одного чиновника его преемник вскоре был уличен в том же преступлении. Он говорит, что нужно менять систему: «Нужно сделать достоянием общественности информацию о многочисленных судебных ошибках, проиллюстрировать минимальную практическую эффективность смертной казни». (Федерико РАМПИНИ. "La Reppublica", 28 октября 2004 г.) LISTENING COMPREHENSION The Evolution of the Death Penalty in the USA Mark the statements as true or false: 1. The framers of the US Constitution defined death penalty as punishment for some “capital” crimes and included a special article on death penalty in the Constitution. �Содержание 2. The First Congress of the United States authorized death penalty for more than 12 offences, including treason, murder, piracy, and perjury. 3. One of the main points in the debate on death penalty in the 18th-19th centuries was its deterrent value, and it is still on the agenda today. 4. The American Society for the Abolition of Capital Punishment was founded in 1845. 5. The first state where death penalty was completely abolished was Michigan, and it happened in 1847. 6. A 1966 opinion poll is considered a peak in public opposition to the death penalty, because over 60 per cent of respondents were against capital punishment. 7. Protection against cruel and unusual punishment in the U.S. is guaranteed by the Eighth Amendment. 8. The most reliable evidence of a person’s guilt in a crime is a DNA test. 9. Recent concerns in the debate on death penalty are mostly focused on the amount of publicity the cases involving death penalty get in the mass media. comment on the following article: U. S. Is Urged to Quit Executing Youth Offenders Glen McGinnis’ mother was a crack addict and prostitute who worked out of the family’s apartment in Texas. As a child, he was brutally beaten, burned and sexually abused. At age 17, McGinnis robbed and fatally shot a store clerk and was sentenced to die. In 2000, after a decade on death row, he was executed by lethal injection. The United States is one of the few remaining countries in the world that executes juvenile offenders. International law prohibits the use of the death penalty for crimes committed by people younger than 18, yet the execution of juvenile offenders continues in a few countries, particularly Iran, where 7 were put to death in 2007, 8 in 2008, and 1 in 2009. According to Amnesty International Iran has executed at least forty two juvenile offenders since 1990. Some juvenile offenders also currently face possible execution in Saudi Arabia. In 2002, Amnesty International USA released two reports urging the United States to end the practice of executing youth offenders. “Our law says that a person under 18 is not mature enough to serve on a jury, not mature enough to buy beer and wine, not mature enough to serve in many jobs, not mature enough to occupy most government positions, but is mature enough to be executed in some states,” said William F. Schulz, executive director of Amnesty International USA. “Where is the logic in that?” In 2002, according to Amnesty International USA, there were 82 inmates on death row in the U.S. who were juveniles when they committed capital offences: 27 in Texas, 13 in Alabama, 7 in Loisiana, 6 in Mississippi, 5 in Arizona and North Carolina, 4 in Florida and Pennsylvania, 3 in South Carolina, 2 in Georgia and Missouri, and 1 in Kentucky, Nevada, Oklahoma, and Virginia. Despite public concern about rising youth crime rates, a Gallup Poll indicates that 69 % of Americans oppose capital punishment for juveniles. They argue that 16- and 17-year-olds are simply too young to be put to death. At their young age, they are still largely dependent on their parents, and have not finished their emotional and psychological development. Because of this, it is too cruel to put them to death. They believe that extensive psychological treatment and education can help troubled youths eventually become productive, non-violent citizens. Putting people to death, they say, is an absolutist, irreversible punishment allowing for no correction of wrong verdicts; it treats troubled people as inconveniences rather than social problems in need of address. �Содержание LISTENING COMPREHENSION Death Penalty: Human Rights and Capital Punishment I. Sum up the arguments for and against the death penalty. Complete the table. Add more arguments for and against the death penalty to the table. FOR AGAINST 1. The death penalty is a just punishment for certain 1. Execution is an act of violence and violence tends to serious crimes, e.g. sadistic murder. provoke violence. 2. The death penalty deters others from committing a 2. The imposition and infliction of death penalty is crime. brutalizing to all who are involved in the process. 3. The death penalty has never been shown to have a special deterrent effect. 4. The death penalty is frequently used as an instrument of repression against opposition, racial, ethnic, religious and underprivileged groups. The death penalty sometimes takes the form of political murder. 5. Execution is irrevocable and can be inflicted on the innocent. VIDEO-BASED LISTENING COMPREHENSION Watch the video “Is the Death Penalty Ever Moral?”. Access mode: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8dnVZibrV6g Sum up the arguments given by Dennis Prager who tries to explain that there are circumstances under which a murderer deserves the death penalty. What is your point of view: should capital punishment be abolished or not? �Содержание TEXT FIVE Crime Victims Fight Back Philadelphia, USA. While Priscilla Murphy was unlocking the door to her home one Saturday afternoon, a man came up behind her brandishing a huge screwdriver. He demanded her purse. Her reaction was anger – at herself. She thought she was street smart, and she had not seen that guy following her. She had been mugged a few years earlier and had resolved she was not going to let it happen again. She looked the man in the eye, took a deep breath and screamed. The criminal stabbed her, then grabbed her purse. At this point her husband, Fred, bounded out the front window and took off in pursuit, shouting obscenities at the assailant, who did drop the purse. Then Fred Murphy discovered something he hadn’t expected: he was not alone. Two neighbors were sprinting along with him. The pursuers became a semi-mechanized posse when a woman in a Volkswagen told Murphy to hop in. The posse picked up recruits as it went along, one of them a passing motorist from Baltimore. In one block, a man who was replacing a battery that had been stolen the night before from his girlfriend’s car, joined in, and he tackled the robber a block later. But the criminal stabbed him in the shoulder and broke free. “We’re going to kill you,” Murphy heard himself screaming, and the group just might have, had the fugitive not run into a variety store. There an off-duty police officer grabbed him and slapped handcuffs on him. Priscilla Murphy’s assailant, who committed the blunder of using a weapon, was sentenced to two years in prison. How do the Murphys feel about the episode now? “I’m satisfied,” Fred says. “We got him.” Kenya: Mob justice is taking over from the police It happens on the streets of Nairobi, on average, every other day. A shabbily dressed man, clutching a purse or a money belt, races through crowds of pedestrians. An enraged mob follows hard on his heels, screaming, “Ua yeye! Ua mwizi!” (Kill him! Kill the thief!) They trap the man in an alleyway, and begin kicking and punching him. If he’s lucky, the police will come to his rescue. But often – about 150 times last year in Nairobi – the thief is beaten to death or burned alive. Mob justice is a common phenomenon in sub-Saharan Africa. In few countries, though, is it meted out with such regularity, or such brutality, as in Kenya. Between nine and eleven people, most of them petty thieves are executed every week across the country, according to The Nation newspaper, and that number is rapidly growing. They are slashed with machetes; stabbed with daggers known as pangas; “necklaced” with gasoline-soaked tires, or kicked to death. They have their fingernails plucked out, their genitalia cut off or their eyes gouged out. In one recent case, an accused thief in Nairobi was ordered to drink kerosene, pour the liquid over himself, then light a match and set himself afire. Much of the street justice is a reaction to Kenya’s ineffectual criminal-justice system. Police lack such essentials as radios and vehicles; investigators frequently fail to follow up on initial inquiries; many criminals bribe their way out of jail. In the Nairobi slums last June, three thieves were battered to death and set ablaze at 4 o’clock in the morning. “Onlookers milled around, braving the acrid smell of burning flesh,” one newspaper reported. The police arrived at 9 and were jeered. Wrote one citizen to The Nation recently: “Kenyans have now accepted “mob justice” as the only effective way to punish thieves.” �Содержание ENGAGING THE TEXT 1. Compare the two stories: Are there any cultural differences in the behavior of the pursuers? 2. What surprised Mr. Murphy in his behavior? Why did he act in the way he did? 3. Did the people in both cases rely on the help from the police? EXTENDING THE CRITICAL CONTEXT What do you think about “mob justice”? Is it a universal phenomenon? Find information about the recent cases of mob justice and comment on them �Содержание TEXT SIX Role of Police Force The police have many functions in the legal process: • they gather information for offences to be prosecuted in the courts; • they have powers to arrest, search and question people suspected of crimes; • they control the actions of members of the public during public demonstrations and assemblies; • in some countries, they have judicial functions. For example, they may make a decision as to guilt in a driving offence and impose a fine, without the involvement of a court. In Britain, when someone is found in possession of marijuana, the police may confiscate it and issue a formal warning rather than refer the matter to a court. In some societies, the mere presence of the police is a factor in deterring people from committing offences. For example, in Japan, you are rarely more than a ten-minute walk from a small police station. Could this be one reason there is less crime in Japan than in other countries? A just legal system needs an independent, honest police force. In countries where the public trusts the police, they are more likely to report crimes, and it seems that they are more likely to be law-abiding. For example, fifty years ago, the British police force was a source of great pride. Unlike police in almost every other country, the British policeman enjoyed a trusted, respected and friendly relationship with the public. The “bobby on the beat” knew his neighbourhood. In return, the public placed a high level of trust in his integrity. It was a source of pride that almost alone in the police world, the British bobby was unarmed. This is probably a rosy and idealized view of the past. Though the British police are probably still among the finest in the world, there are serious and growing problems. And the most serious problem is the dramatic decline in public confidence. In 1959, eight out of ten people said they had great respect for the police. 30 years later this had dropped to four out of ten. Why? There are several reasons for this: Rising crime rates. Crime rates have risen steadily in the last 30 years, but the proportion of crimes that were solved decreased, so many people feel they are no longer being protected adequately by the police. Scandals and corruption. Because the police have wide powers, it is not difficult to corrupt them to falsify evidence against a suspect, to mistreat someone they have arrested, or to accept bribes in return for overlooking offences. In 1991, the Osaka High Court ordered the review of a Hong Cong man’s case after finding that the police had used a biased interpreter. In the 1970s there was concern over corruption, especially in Scotland Yard, involving bribery, drugs and pornography. Recently there have also been scandals about falsified evidence and perjury. Violent policing. There have been numerous cases of police violence against foreign suspects, many of whom are not told of their rights in a language which they can understand. In some countries, police officers obtain confessions from people by beating them up. It should be noted that in the United States, illegally obtained evidence is not valid in court, but in Britain the court decides whether it is fair to accept such evidence on a case-by-case basis. A confession obtained by force would not be allowed, but one obtained by trickery might. Legal systems usually have codes for the police, regulating the way of carrying out searches and seizures, limiting the time and the methods which they can use to question suspects and guaranteeing the suspects access to independent lawyers. Private legal action can be taken against a police officer as against any other individual. But many people feel �Содержание it is difficult to gather evidence against the police. Racism. An independent survey revealed that 48 % of white Londoners thought the police were hostile to ethnic minorities. It also reported that only 29 % of blacks believed that the police treated all people fairly. Now the Metropolitan Police are trying to recruit more ethnic minority police officers, so that they are firmly “opposed to all forms of prejudice: racist, sexist, anti-black or anti-white”. ENGAGING THE TEXT * CULTURAL NOTE: The modern metropolitan police force began with Sir Robert Peel in Britain, in 1829. As home secretary, he reorganized England’s criminal code and established London’s first disciplined police force, whose members were nicknamed after him “bobbies” or “peelers.” 1. Give Russian equivalents: To prosecute; a formal warning; to refer the matter to a court; to have wide powers; to mistreat; to overlook offences; illegally obtained evidence; (not) valid in court; on a case-by-case basis; search and seizure. 2. Answer the questions: 9) What are the functions of the police? 10) Why does a just legal system need an independent, honest police force? 11) What are the reasons for the dramatic decline in public confidence in the police? EXTENDING THE CRITICAL CONTEXT COMMENT ON THE FOLLOWING ARTICLES: Russia Targets Corrupt Police in Crackdown MOSCOW – Corrupt police linked with gangsters have been planting false evidence on their victims and then extorting bribes from them. These “wolves in sheep’s clothing” include agents of the criminal investigation department of the Moscow city police. They have planted handguns and drugs, instituted criminal investigations and then extorted money for closing them. Some people were taken into custody on the basis of forged evidence. Links among the worlds of business, crime, law enforcement and government are believed to be common in Russia. Prominent businessmen and politicians are often the targets of gangland-style executions, which are blamed on �Содержание conflicts over money and are rarely solved. Officers from several law enforcement bodies and soldiers formed the extortion group’s core. It cooperated with criminal organizations to extort large sums of money, blackmailing casinos, restaurants and other enterprises by threatening violence. The group also set up a private guard company as part of this protection racket. Money was laundered through commercial firms and specially established foundations. More than 130 officers are suspected of being members of the extortion group, the Russian news agency Itar-Tass said. Russian media said that among those arrested was Lt. Gen. Vladimir Ganeyev, chief of the Emergency Situations Ministry’s internal security service, who is suspected of being a ring leader. Investigators believe that the extortion ring was centered in Moscow but also operated in other parts of the country. It is suspected of more than 100 cases of falsification of evidence. Investigators are also checking for possible involvement in contract murders and armed robbery. Answer the questions: 1. What criminal activities were members of the corrupt police group involved in? 2. How large was the group? Who were the members of the group? 3. Do people begin to feel more secure when they hear of operations targeting corrupted policemen? 4. Do you think that such “crackdowns” are a part of a large-scale plan to eradicate corruption within the law enforcement structures? Corrupt Police Under Scrutiny From January 1, 2010, all employees of parts of the Interior Ministry and members of their families are required to report their incomes. The new requirement is part of ongoing efforts to clean up the image of law enforcement bodies in Russia, where regular and traffic police are widely seen as corrupt. In the past month, 4,328 disciplinary actions were brought against Interior Ministry employees, and 372 criminal cases were started against police officers. The accused include a deputy chief of police in southern Russia's Stavropol Territory, the head of special investigations in the Far Eastern Primorye Territory and the commander of Moscow's rail police, while the deputy interior minister of the northern republic of Komi has already been convicted. Prosecutors opened a criminal probe into bribe-taking by traffic police and the government may create a network of informants to battle graft. The instances of traffic police being involved in bribery, abuse of office and exceeding their powers, as well as illegal fines and extortion, have become more frequent. The State Traffic Safety Inspectorate, or GIBDD, issues licenses, road permits and imposes fines, which are often paid in cash and at the scene of the infraction. Almost half of all Russians, 48 percent, consider traffic cops corrupt, a poll by the Levada Center showed last month. A Public Opinion Foundation survey two years earlier found that 85 percent of Russians “wouldn’t be surprised to hear that traffic police were involved in the theft and sale of foreign cars.” Answer the questions: 1. Can declaration of income in itself be considered an anti-corruption measure? 2. What is the attitude of the public to the traffic police in Russia? 3. What do you think should be done to rebuild public confidence in the police? �Содержание REVISION EXERCISES R1. Arrange the following words into six synonymic groups: Fabricate, confinement, theft, misdemeanant, remuneration, falsify, imprisonment, training school, prison, compensation, offender, pickpocketing, wrongdoer, incarceration, larceny, jail, counterfeit, recompense, reformatory, forge, robbery, felon, correctional institution, custody, lawbreaker, shoplifting, delinquent, restitution. R2. Fill in the table with the words from the list. Homonymous forms should be placed in different columns. Each column contains ten words. Words: homicide, thwart, pickpocket, suicide, delinquent, treason, rape, robber, counterfeit, assault, libel, inmate, bully, vandal, arson, perjure, swindle, offense, misdemeanant, fugitive. Nouns denoting crimes Nouns denoting people Verbs �Содержание R3. Fill in the table following the arrows: Start → ↓ 3 → ↓ ↓ 1 → ↓ 8 9 → ↓ → ↓ 12 5 6 15 7 13 11 2 14 4 → ↑ → ↑ !!! 10 → ↑ → ↑ → ↑ Finish 1. stealing money that is placed in one’s care 2. the systematic use of terror especially as a means of coercion 3. the unlawful killing of a human being without implied malice 4. to set free from confinement 5. qualified to be chosen / to be set free, etc. 6. circumstances that diminish the culpability of one who has committed a criminal offense 7. the fact of having committed a breach of conduct especially violating law and involving a penalty 8. a definite extent of time 9. a crime less serious than a felony 10. to steal, to take personal property by violence or threat 11. the practice of obtaining money or advantage by threatening to make known unpleasant facts about a person or group 12. a defamation by written or printed words, pictures, etc. 13. a rule that is supported by the power of government and that controls the behaviour of members of a society 14. one that does wrong, esp. who transgresses moral law 15. the process of making a person able to live a healthy, useful or active life again, esp. after being ill or in prison �Содержание R4. Fill in the gaps with the proper names and dates: (Yakuza; Amnesty International; Jack Kevorkian, Samaritans; the 7th century BC; 1963; 1863; Ted Kaczynski; Wuornos; NRA; MADD) 1. …… is strongly against gun control laws. 2. In 1980, after her daughter was killed by a drunk driver, Candy Lightner founded the group called …… . 3. In …… , a voluntary organization called ………… was founded in Great Britain to help people who came near to killing themselves. 4. ……… was unique, because she killed in the style of male serial killers. 5. In Japan, the most powerful criminal association is called …… . 6. In ………… Draconian Code of Athens made death the penalty for every crime committed. 7. In ………, Venezuela became the first country to abolish capital punishment for all crimes. 8. ……… is a human-rights organization which actively seeks the release of political prisoners and support of their families when necessary. 9. Over a period of 17 years, ……………, known as the Unabomber, sent mail bombs to people whom he perceived as enemies of humanity, most of them professors and researchers in science and technology. 10. In the 1980s,…………….., a U.S. pathologist and advocate of physician-assisted suicide, devised a “suicide machine,” with which a person could commit suicide by merely pushing a button. R5. Correct the following statements: 1. The majority of juvenile delinquents become persistent adult criminals. 2. Islam, Judaism and Christianity have always been tolerant to suicide. 3. Only Christians can become members of the Samaritans. 4. The Sicilian Mafia arose in the 19th century. 5. Until the mid 19th century, there were no prisons in the United States. 6. The UK has a higher percentage of its population in prison than any other NATO country. 7. Death penalty as a form of punishment was codified in Europe in the Middle Ages. 8. In Great Britain, the death penalty was abolished in 1975. 9. The United States is the only country in the world that executes juvenile offenders. 10. Execution methods that exist in the United States include gassing, lethal injection, decapitation, and electrocution. R6. Say whether the statement is true or false: 1. Crimes are acts which people in a certain community consider to be wrong. 2. Most crime in Britain today is against property, not against people. 3. The number of domestic burglaries in Britain has increased dramatically in recent years. 4. The murder rate in Florida is much higher than in South Dakota. 5. Most crime in Great Britain is committed by young males who are not professional criminals. 6. As a rule, American cities with a higher rate of poverty and unemployment have a higher crime rate. 7. Many communities across the United States encourage their citizens to participate in “neighborhood watch” programs and to report crimes. 8. In the United States, there are people who are required by law to report suspected child abuse immediately. 9. Euthanasia has not been legalized yet in any country of the world. 10. The ignorance of the law is a defense for breaking it. �Содержание The best topic is one that you truly care about, and one that you're prepared to research. You'll have to back up your claim (whichever side you choose) with lots of evidence and support. These topics are sure to spark some interest. 1. What is the aim of punishment: to deter, to revenge, or to reform? 2. Why I am for / against death penalty. 3. There are born teachers, born actors… and born criminals. 4. Once you get into prison there’s no way back to normal life. 5. Euthanasia and suicide: He who does not accept and respect those who want to reject life does not truly accept and respect life itself (Thomas Szasz). 6. Gun control: You can get more with a kind word and a gun than you can with a kind word alone (Al Capone). 7. Poverty is the parent of revolution and crime (ARISTOTLE). 8. The most absurd apology for authority and law is that they serve to diminish crime (EMMA GOLDMAN). 9. Crime is as much a condition as an intention (LEWIS F. KORNS). 10. The more laws, the less justice (Marcus Tullius Cicero). �Содержание SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Mythology.net. [Электронный ресурс]. – Режим доступа: https://mythology.net/, свободный. – Загл. с экрана (дата обращения: 12.04.2018). 2. McDowall, D. Britain in close-up: an in-depth study of contemporary Britain / D. McDowall. – 3rd impr. – Edinburg : Longman, 2001. – 208 p. 3. Religions of the World. A Brief Introduction to the Major Religions of the World. [Электронный ресурс]. – Режим доступа: http://www.krysstal.com/wgods.html, свободный. – Загл. с экрана (дата обращения: 12.04.2018). 4. Stevenson, D. K. American life and institutions / D. K. Stevenson ; ass.: J. H. Bodenstein, E. Daun-Barausch. – Stuttgart : Ernst Klett, 1987. – 144 p. �Содержание APPENDIXES Appendix 1 Appendix 2 �Содержание APPENDIX 1 Guidelines for Rendering an article The word “rendering” has several meanings; among them – “translation” and “interpretation”. This task does not imply literal, word for word translation. You should summarize the information focusing on the message of the article and express your understanding of the problem. It is recommended to follow this outline: 1. The source of the article (The article .".."is taken from .".."in its issue of........). 2. The genre and the topic of the article (It is an interview / a report / a topical comment / a story devoted to/ about....). 3. A brief content of the article. 4. The message / the purpose of the article, the target audience (The main idea, as I see it from what I have just read, is… The article is addressed to....) 5. The author's point of view (The author criticizes / ridicules / is indignant at…/ is exasperated by…/ is sarcastic / is definitely biased / tries to be objective). 6. Your own reasoning about the topicality of the article, about the problem raised in it, about the author's point of view, etc. This should comprise about half of the rendering speech. (On the whole, I share the author’s opinion, but… I agree with the writer’s point of view about…. I can only partly agree with the author.) �Содержание APPENDIX 2 Guidelines for Argument Essay Writing You should use three steps when you write a short (350–400-word) persuasive essay. First, tell your reader what you are going to write. Second, write it. Third, tell your reader what you wrote. Thus, your essay should have the following parts: • A Good Beginning This is where you tell the reader what you are going to write about. A good beginning has certain requirements. A good beginning is short. Three or four sentences is enough to give the background information and tell your reader how you plan to approach the topic. A good beginning is direct. It contains the statement of your thesis (the idea you are going to prove, your position on a particular controversial topic). A good beginning is an outline. It gives the reader a general idea of your plan. • Good Comments (the Body of the Text) Good comments include several points. Three reasons is a standard argument. Good comments are all related. All the comments should relate to the general statement in the first sentence. Good comments are logical. The points should be based on evidence. The evidence should come from sources that can be cited, such as a television program that you have seen, an article that you have read in a magazine, a book that you have read, etc. Your personal experience is also considered to be strong evidence. The evidence should be reasonable, accurate, current, and representative. Use transition words to lead to the following paragraph (moreover, in fact, on the whole, furthermore, as a result, simply put, for this reason, similarly, likewise, it follows that, naturally, by comparison, surely, yet etc.) • A Good Ending This is where you tell the reader what you wrote. A good ending is a summary. The last sentence is similar to the first sentence. It is the restatement of the thesis (though not repeating it word for word). A good ending does not introduce a new idea. �Содержание � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Коротких Жанна Александровна Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Practice communication skills in English: Religion, Culture and Law Subject The topic of the resource 1. Языкознание. 2. Германские языки. 3. английский язык. 4. культура речевого общения Description An account of the resource Practice communication skills in English: Religion, Culture and Law [Электронный ресурс] : учебное пособие / Ж. А. Коротких, И. Ю. Кочешкова, Л. Л. Шевченко ; Алтайский государственный педагогический университет. — Барнаул : АлтГПУ, 2018. — 178 с. Целью пособия является формирование коммуникативной, социально-культурной и межкультурной компетенций студентов, находящихся на продвинутом этапе изучения английского языка. Основными видами работы на занятиях по культуре речевого общения на данном этапе обучения являются дискуссии, обсуждения и презентации. Поэтому при отборе текстов, аудио- и видеофрагментов авторы стремились предоставить студентам интересный фактический материал, расширяющий их кругозор, развивающий способности критически мыслить и, в то же время, способствующий расширению словарного запаса. В разделы включены сведения по странам всех континентов, что позволяет в процессе дискуссии опираться на культурологические и исторические факты и сопоставлять особенности развития различных культур и обществ. Пособие содержит два раздела: «Культура и религия» и «Культура и правопорядок». Учебное пособие предназначено для студентов старших курсов институтов и факультетов иностранных языков. Рекомендовано к изданию редакционно-издательским советом АлтГПУ 29.03.2018 г. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource <strong><a href="http://library.altspu.ru/ecat/zgate?ACTION=follow&amp;SESSION_ID=29713&amp;TERM=%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85,%20%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%20%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B0%5B1,1004,4,6%5D&amp;LANG=rus">Коротких, Жанна Александровна</a></strong> Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Алтайский государственный педагогический университет, 2018 Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Алтайский государственный педагогический университет Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 08.06.2018 Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Кочешкова, Ирина Юрьевна Шевченко, Людмила Леонидовна Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource ©Алтайский государственный педагогический университет, 2018 Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource pdf, exe Language A language of the resource русский Type The nature or genre of the resource Учебное пособие Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context &lt;URL:<a href="http://library.altspu.ru/dc/pdf/korotkih3.pdf" target="_blank">http://library.altspu.ru/dc/pdf/korotkih3.pdf</a>&gt;<br />&lt;URL:<a href="http://library.altspu.ru/dc/exe/setup.exe" target="_blank">http://library.altspu.ru/dc/exe/setup.exe</a>&gt; английский язык Германские языки культура речевого общения Языкознание http://books.altspu.ru/files/original/100/115/_.png 1c6376f20217013bb9b0016095b7f422 http://books.altspu.ru/files/original/100/115/kirkinskaya.pdf 834b52d9979582bab3fc6f373be60404 PDF Text Text Содержание �Содержание Об издании Основной титульный экран Дополнительный титульный экран непериодического издания – 1 Дополнительный титульный экран непериодического издания – 2 �Содержание МИНИСТЕРСТВО НАУКИ И ВЫСШЕГО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ РОССИЙСКОЙ ФЕДЕРАЦИИ Федеральное государственное бюджетное образовательное учреждение высшего образования «Алтайский государственный педагогический университет» (ФГБОУ ВО «АлтГПУ») Т.И. Киркинская, А.В. Вульфович УРОК РУССКОГО ЯЗЫКА В СОВРЕМЕННОЙ ШКОЛЕ. ЖИВАЯ МЕТОДИКА Учебно-методическое пособие Барнаул ФГБОУ ВО «АлтГПУ» 2018 Об издании - 1, 2, 3. �Содержание УДК 808.2(075) ББК 81.41Р-923+74.268.12 К432 Киркинская, Т.И. Урок русского языка в современной школе. Живая методика [Электронный ресурс] : учебнометодическое пособие / Т.И. Киркинская, А.В. Вульфович. – Барнаул : АлтГПУ, 2018. – Систем. требования: PC не ниже класса Intel Celeron 2 ГГц ; 512 Мb RAM ; Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 ; Adobe Acrobat Reader ; SVGA монитор с разрешением 1024х768 ; мышь. Рецензент: Шпильная Н.Н., доктор филологических педагогического университета наук, профессор Алтайского государственного Пособие посвящено описанию необходимых контекстов для построения эффективного урока русского языка как родного. Изучаются практические подходы к реализации когнитивно-семантического направления обучения. Рассматриваются приёмы работы со стенограммами уроков. Предлагается система упражнений для развития языковых умений школьников в режиме стартового учебного действия, тренировочных и итоговых работ. Издание может быть полезно учителям и студентам, проходящим педагогическую практику. Рекомендовано к изданию редакционно-издательским советом АлтГПУ 31.05.2018 г. Текстовое (символьное) электронное издание. Системные требования PC не ниже класса Intel Celeron 2 ГГц ; 512 Мb RAM ; Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 ; Adobe Acrobat Reader ; SVGA монитор с разрешением 1024х768 ; мышь. Об издании - 1, 2, 3. �Содержание Электронное издание создано при использовании программного обеспечения Sunrav BookOffice. Объём издания - 5 100 КБ. Дата подписания к использованию: 10.09.2018 Федеральное государственное бюджетное образовательное учреждение высшего образования «Алтайский государственный педагогический университет» (ФГБОУ ВО «АлтГПУ») ул. Молодежная, 55, г. Барнаул, 656031 Тел. (385-2) 36-82-71, факс (385-2) 24-18-72 е-mail: rector@altspu.ru, http://www.altspu.ru Об издании - 1, 2, 3. �Содержание Содержание Введение 1. Чему учится ученик и чему можно учить на уроках русского языка? 1.1. Программа обучения VS целостное видение системы языка 1.2. Речевой опыт ученика как опора в обучении письменной речи Вопросы и задания для самостоятельной работы 1.3. Что показывает стенограмма урока? Задания для наблюдения, размышления и обсуждения 2. Как сделать урок когнитивно значимым для носителя языка? 2.1. Языковой материал урока: на перекрёстке речевого и учебного опыта обучаемого Задания для наблюдения, размышления и обсуждения 2.2. Моделирование наиболее существенных отношений в предметном материале 2.3. Варианты текстовых тренингов по развитию различных компонентов языковой способности учеников Вопросы и задания для самостоятельной работы 3. Как сделать урок коммуникативно значимым для ученика? 3.1. Коммуникативные стратегии, отражающие отношения «своё-чужое» 3.2. Параметры анализа учебной коммуникации Вопросы и задания для самостоятельной работы 4. Речевая база для освоения языковой системы 4.1. Уровни готовности к речевой деятельности 4.2. Общая характеристика упражнений при изучении разделов языка Вопросы и задания для самостоятельной работы 5. Языковые умения школьников 5–9 классов. Примеры стартовых, тренировочных и итоговых упражнений для их развития 5.1. Лексические умения 5.2. Словообразовательные и морфематические умения 5.3. Орфографические и морфематические умения 5.4. Фонематические и орфоэпические умения 5.5. Морфологические умения 5.6. Синтаксические умения �Содержание 5.7. Общетекстовые умения Вопросы и задания для самостоятельной работы 6. Интегрирующие составляющие урока при его проектировании 6.1. Логическая свёртка урока и коммуникативно-деятельностная развёртка урока 6.2. Варианты технологических карт урока русского языка Список использованной литературы Приложения Приложение 1. Фрагмент учебного орфографо-морфемного словаря Приложение 2. Значения некоторых суффиксов имён существительных Приложение 3. Значения приставок имён существительных Приложение 4. Значения приставок имён прилагательных Приложение 5. Список аббревиатур Сведения об авторах �Содержание Введение Создание развивающей профессиональной среды сегодня как никогда актуально, особенно для молодого поколения учителей. Педагогическая практика даёт первичный опыт, который требует грамотного восприятия и анализа. Главными ориентирами в этом процессе являются, на наш взгляд, две основные составляющие: целостное видение закономерностей языковой системы и живой опыт носителей языка. На их стыке рождается живая методика обучения родному языку. Урок мы рассматриваем как, по крайней мере, трёхмерное коммуникативно-образовательное событие, вбирающее в себя: • взрослое сообщество, транслирующее свои культурные и социальные ценности и установки (культурные образцы опыта человечества и нации, образовательный стандарт, методические каноны); • сознание, мышление, интеллект ребёнка, интуитивно-чувственный опыт, изменяющиеся на фоне его языкового развития и предъявляемые на уроке в виде конкретных умений, вопросов и реплик разного типа, а также в виде ситуаций озарения, удивления, непонимания, сопротивления, спонтанного диалога; • формы и способы предметной деятельности, адекватные возрасту ученика и отражающие чётко и объёмно (от простого – к сложному) тему урока, сопряжённые с ней базовые умения и развиваемые новые умения. В языке заложен мощный потенциал когнитивного развития, познания себя и окружающего мира. Каждый ребёнок, соприкасаясь с разноуровневой семантизацией и вариативностью русского языка в школе, имеет также уникальный шанс для становления самостоятельности своего мышления и ощущения своего стиля в речевом действии. Живая методика урока невозможна без грамотного видения когнитивных и коммуникативных смыслов того, кого мы обучаем. Эти смыслы можно спрогнозировать из личного опыта, а можно их возникновение наблюдать прямо на уроке. Тогда учитель и ученики становятся реальными соавторами учебных событий. «Главным в перспективе развития образования, – читаем в книге В.П. Зинченко, – должно стать живое знание, которое не является оппозицией научному, ядерному, программному знанию. Оно опирается на эти виды знания, служит их предпосылкой и итогом. Живое знание отличается от мертвого или ставшего знания тем, что оно не может быть усвоено, оно должно быть построено» [Зинченко, с. 23]. Живая методика – полный аналог живому знанию, а точнее, его составная часть. Она тоже не может быть усвоена, но должна быть построена каждым становящимся педагогом – студентом педагогического вуза или колледжа. Современные дети растут в информационно переполненной среде. Поэтому на первый план при обучении выходит мотивация учебной деятельности и организация мыследеятельности. В соответствии с ФГОС урок должен строиться с учётом требований: а) деятельностного подхода, б) событийности учебной ситуации, в) продуктивного коммуникативного пространства, г) развивающей образовательной среды. Пособие содержит материал по учёту и применению данных позиций в проекте урока. Пособие посвящено описанию необходимых контекстов для построения эффективного урока русского языка. Для начала назовём «слабые» места в школьных уроках и возможности их трансформаций. �Содержание 1. Преобладание фрагментарно-тематического, нормативного отношения к языку. Изучение нормы – не конечная цель школьного изучения языка. «Нормовый каркас» нужен как почва для рождения метаязыка. Развитие метаязыковой компетенции школьника – самостоятельная задача обучения родному языку. Именно в школьный период развития ребёнок получает метаязык: «как для осознания предметной деятельности ребёнку необходимо слово, точно так же и для осознания языка ребёнку необходим метаязык... Усваивая метаязык, ребёнок переступает на интеллектуальную стадию владения языком» [Шахнарович, 1998, с. 33]. Уместно напомнить также точку зрения А.А. Леонтьева и А.А. Потебни, считавших, что при овладении письмом возникает ситуация билингвизма. Ребёнок заново, другими глазами смотрит даже на родной язык. Обучая письменной речи, мы развиваем метаязыковой компонент языковой способности человека. В современном образовании распространено мнение о коммуникативной функции языка как ведущей. В этой связи следует напомнить мысль В. фон Гумбольдта о том, что основной функцией языка является когнитивная, мыслеобразующая функция. Современный выдающийся лингвист Н.Д. Голев отмечает новую тенденцию – «тенденцию к иероглифизации русской письменной речи. Письмо напрямую связывается с мыслью, минуя звучание. Это существенным образом нарушает сложившиеся у нас графоцентрические представления о вторичности письменной речи, формулой которых является тезис «письмо фиксирует звучащую речь»» [Голев, 2009, с. 289]. 2. Односторонне нормативное отношение к языку фактически разрушает логику обучения русскому языку в рамках антропоцентрической парадигмы. Обучение во многом носит формальный характер. Наблюдается отчуждение школьников от родного языка, от продуктов собственного учебного труда. «Структурированное обучение… подчас оказывает отрицательное воздействие, деформируя стихийно складывающуюся индивидуальную языковую систему ребёнка» [Цейтлин, с. 268]. И далее: «Мы совершенно убеждены в том, что каждый ребёнок строит сам не только базовую языковую систему, воплощённую в устной речи, но и так называемую письменно-речевую систему» [Цейтлин, с. 272]. Требует осмысления и следующее наблюдение: «Орфографическое поведение школьника формируется под влиянием таких установок, как «ошибкобоязнь», «опора на сомнение» («не сомневаешься, не сможешь применить правило и написать правильно»), «решение орфограммы – особый вид речевой (в сущности – метаязыковой) деятельности, требующий выхода из режима спонтанно-автоматической деятельности», без знания теории языка нельзя стать грамотным и т. п.» [Голев, 2009, с. 297]. Понимание системных языковых линий обучения в логике развития базовых и новых умений школьников в процессе осознанного овладения родным языком, краткое описание которых мы предлагаем в нашем пособии, на наш взгляд, поможет учителю «оздоровить» учебную мотивацию. Возникнет синтез речевого, ментального и учебного опыта ученика с программой и методикой обучения. 3. Недостаток ситуаций рефлексивного отношения к языковым явлениям. Учёные говорят о том, что рефлексия над языком и собственной речью приходит не взамен бессознательного автоматизированного использования языка, а как закономерный этап интеллектуального развития. Этот этап связан с осознанием (пониманием, применением) следующих позиций: а) системности устройства языка; �Содержание б) вариативности способов выражения значения и смысла; в) оценкой успешности использования языка в коммуникации. Следует также поразмышлять над мнением профессора Н.Д. Голева: «Механизмы естественного владения языком – основание методик обучения ему» [Голев, 2009, с. 285]. Процессу естественного владения языком свойственно не дробное его видение, а целостное, холистическое. Автор поясняет: «В нашей школе очень популярны методики аналитического чтения, «чтения под микроскопом» с актуализацией на текстовые детали, вплоть до точек и запятых, но практически не представлены методики чтения «под телескопом», то есть качественного холистического чтения» [Голев, 2009, с. 294]. 4. Большинство учебников русского языка не делают поправки на языковую способность обучаемых и их речевой опыт. Возможно, поэтому редко на уроке появляются реплики, предъявляющие примеры и аргументы из опыта речевой или учебной деятельности. Дословно записанные стенограммы уроков фиксируют преобладание речи учителя, а также позволяют увидеть ресурсы практически каждого урока в аспекте обратной связи с учениками. Анализ стенограмм уроков полезен для будущих учителей в аспекте наличия и разнообразия рефлексивных, интерактивных, ресурсных учебных ситуаций. Формы проявления обратной связи можно учесть, например, при подборе языкового материала для урока, при планировании разных способов обсуждения выполняемых упражнений. 5. Поразмышляем над мыслью, сформулированной В.И. Тюпой: «Информативная дидактика упускает из виду, что сообщить (и, соответственно, репродуцировать) можно только тексты (знаки), но не смыслы. Смысл требуется актуализировать … через соприкосновение с другим (чужим) смыслом, то есть сделать действенным, воздействующим на движение мысли.… Конвергентная педагогика предполагает неформальную диалогизацию учебного процесса, постановку сознания учащегося в креативную (смыслообразующую и текстопорождающую) позицию». Сегодня наше общение всё больше уходит в мир виртуальный. Реальное общение становится предметом роскоши, неким искусством, которому приходится учиться заново. Возможно, стоит освоить в школьной практике идею сторителлинга – искусства рассказывать истории. Это новый тренд в образовании, основанный на опыте наших предков для передачи опыта и знаний: чтобы уловить суть, необходимо активизировать правое полушарие. 6. Попытки установить продуктивную горизонтальную коммуникацию (между учениками) на уроке сводятся часто к игровым действиям в парах или командах. Нет стратегии развития конкретных коммуникативных умений. Роль живой, грамотно организованной коммуникации в учебной ситуации сейчас как никогда усиливается. Стоит вспомнить в этой связи мнение психологов о том, что многие основы непроизносимы, но должны быть прочувствованы, прожиты в процессе общения. Так воспитывается тонкость понимания. В пособии предлагается к освоению разработанная профессором Н.В. Максимовой система коммуникативных стратегий и параметров анализа учебной коммуникации. 7. И, наконец, следует признать, что практическая методика обучения русскому языку как родному не располагает полной и достаточной системой упражнений по целенаправленному развитию языкоречевых умений носителя языка. Вспомним высказывание К.Д. Ушинского: «Системность упражнений есть первая и главная основа успеха». Полагаем, что доминирующее пока формально-грамматическое направление в обучении родному языку постепенно трансформируется в ключе идей ФГОС и соединится с когнитивно-семантическим �Содержание направлением. Наше пособие нацелено на реализацию этого направления. Пособие содержит примеры учебных заданий, ориентированных на традиционную общую схему урока: актуализация знаний – объяснение нового – закрепление. Студент учится приёмам и способам работы на каждом этапе, постоянно имея в виду связь части с целым и помня о том, что объяснение нового – это всегда фактор согласования предметного материала с аудиторией. При работе над пособием использовались материалы, полученные в результате сотрудничества в рамках федеральной экспериментальной площадки «Природосообразные линии обучения русскому языку в рамках ФГОС», с учителями школы № 64 г. Барнаула – Аллой Анатольевной Писник и Ириной Николаевной Первых. Глава 3 создана на основе исследований доктора филологических наук Наталии Викторовны Максимовой (г. Новосибирск), выражаем автору благодарность за предоставленные материалы. �Содержание 1. Чему учится ученик и чему можно учить на уроках русского языка? 1.1. Программа обучения VS целостное видение системы языка 1.2. Речевой опыт ученика как опора в обучении письменной речи Вопросы и задания для самостоятельной работы 1.3. Что показывает стенограмма урока? Задания для наблюдения, размышления и обсуждения �Содержание 1.1. Программа обучения VS целостное видение системы языка Философы говорят, что образование входит в кодекс «обязанностей перед самим собой». У человека две стороны – единичная и всеобщая, что обусловливает его долг перед собой: с одной стороны, сохранить себя физически, а с другой, поднять своё отдельное существование до своей всеобщей высшей природы и в этом смысле – образовать себя. Языковое чувство дано от природы: ребёнок реагирует на интонации, тембр голоса, мимику. Постепенно, в процессе общения в естественной языковой среде, звуковая материя обрастает смысловой семантикой. Приобретается спонтанный языковой опыт выражения себя, своего отношения к окружающему миру, опыт понимания разных текстов и других людей. С этим багажом ребёнок приходит в школу. Возникают вопросы: нужно ли учитывать при обучении в школе уже имеющийся разнообразный языковой и жизненный опыт ученика? Как это делать? В школе появляется другой тип языкового опыта – учебный. На что он должен быть направлен? Как соединить органично нормовую базу языка и спонтанный языковой опыт ученика? Как развивать такие продвинутые, более высокие аспекты языковой способности, как языковая рефлексия, языковая прогностика, языковой вкус? Важно основы их осознанного развития закладывать именно в школе. (Психологи говорят об интенсивном развитии полушарий головного мозга именно в школьный период жизни; именно в этот период формируются шаблоны мыслеформ, которыми человек затем долго пользуется). Итак, сегодня насущно требуется создание методики сочетания системно-языковых и природосообразных линий обучения родному русскому языку. Основа природосообразности обучения – в развитии мышления и сознания человека. (Знаниевая парадигма исчерпала себя). «Чего может достичь человек посредством языкa?»[Гумбольдт, с 11]. Это, на наш взгляд, ключевой вопрос современной лингводидактики и методики обучения родному языку. В школьной реальности преобладает анализ, «разложение» языка на правила, хотя в педагогической психологии важнейшим провозглашается принцип сбалансированности анализа и синтеза. Важно каким-то образом научиться целенаправленно интегрировать спонтанный языковой опыт и знания о системных элементах языка. Научиться технологично развивать и «вживлять» рефлексивное чувство языка в речевую деятельность, т. е. научиться реально применять в учебной деятельности при обучении языку естественную триаду: интуитивное речевое действие (синтез) – анализ речевого действия – осознанное речевое действие (синтез). Третья ступень на данный момент объявляется во ФГОС желаемым результатом, однако трудно признать её профессионально освоенной. Интегрирующее изучение природосообразно, оно воплощает идею культурной завершённости любого познавательного действия: от общего представления – через анализ – к новому синтезу. Какие же системно-технологические линии есть или могут быть на сегодняшний день в методическом арсенале учителя для реализации интегрирующего, природосообразного изучения русского языка? Во-первых, системная интеграция предполагает, по крайней мере, наличие и выполнение трёх методических требований: 1) наличие чёткой росписи к каждой теме урока базовых умений, сопряжённых прямо или косвенно с языковым материалом урока, и новых, формируемых на уроке (серии уроков) языко-речевых умений; 2) проектирование стартового задания (диагностической учебной ситуации на уроке) с целью построения реальной траектории движения в теме урока (подбор языкового материала, продуманная �Содержание формулировка задания к нему, способ проверки результата выполнения, обсуждение с учениками возникших вариантов продолжения освоения темы); 3) проектирование способов предъявления и обсуждения вариантов выполнения ключевых заданий, формирующих базовые умения учеников. Например, озаглавливание как способ обучения смысловому сжатию текста представляет собой целую цепочку более простых (базовых) учебных действий, освоенных учеником: выделение ключевых слов, составление плана к тексту, абзацное членение, выделение микротем, умение записывать со слуха высказанную мысль и т. п. Публичный обмен вариантами заголовков позволяет ученику самому увидеть место своего варианта и оценить его. Во-вторых, следует целенаправленно обращаться к истории языка, его этимологическим истокам, включая первосмыслы древнеславянской буквицы. Это поможет развить образное восприятие буквы, слова и в целом родного языка. Сформирует ценностное и ответственное отношение к речевой деятельности, будет также способствовать дисциплине мысли. Возможно, в некоторой степени остановит процесс порождения и передачи шаблонов и стереотипов в мысле- и речедеятельности. В-третьих, методистам следует промыслить официальную программу обучения родному языку именно в ключе рождающейся методики сочетания системно-языковых и природосообразных линий обучения русскому языку. Пока программа не способствует формированию целостного видения системы родного языка. �Содержание 1.2. Речевой опыт ученика как опора в обучении письменной речи Каждый ребёнок постигает родной язык своим собственным путём. Различия определяются объективными факторами: а) биологическими (разное время созревания отдельных отделов головного мозга); б) типом функциональной межполушарной асимметрии мозга (предпочтение правой или левой руки, глаза, уха); в) речевой средой, в том числе инпутом – речевой продукцией взрослых, адресованной ребёнку. Распространённым препятствием для речевого развития ребёнка учёные прошлого века называли сенсорное голодание – недостаток «пищи» для нормального функционирования слуховых, зрительных и прочих анализаторов, недостаток впечатлений, ограниченность практического опыта (в том числе опыта взаимодействия с текстами) и т. п. В раннем и дошкольном детстве можно наблюдать две принципиальные детские тактики усвоения языка: а) референциальная – когда преобладает в основном называние предметов, «развешиваются ярлыки»; б) экспрессивная – когда ребёнок стремится использовать язык для регуляции собственной деятельности и установления контакта с другими людьми (используются слова из разных лексических групп, а также целые «замороженные» фразы). Естественно, большинство детей образуют срединные группы, сочетающие в разных комбинациях эти тактики. Наблюдения исследователей показывают, что референциальные дети чаще всего бывают первыми либо единственными в семье и среди них больше девочек. Родители таких детей, как правило, имеют более высокий образовательный уровень, чем родители экспрессивных детей. Экспрессивные дети больше способны к имитации, и среди них больше мальчиков. Можно видеть, что «следы» этих начальных, естественных тактик усвоения языка имеют корреляцию с разными способами восприятия авторского текста и построения собственного. В практике репродуцирования текстов различают копиальный и креативный способы воспроизведения первичного текста. Кроме того, различают типы восприятия, наиболее выраженно реагирующие на логические либо художественные элементы текста, что проявляется и при построении собственного текста. Различия между учениками можно наблюдать в использовании разных частей речи, местоимений, союзов. При построении сложных причинно-следственных предложений, например, возникают две группы ученических работ: в одной группе на первое место ставится предложение, выражающее причину, в другой – выражающее следствие. Некоторые исследователи считают подобные различия следствием двух стратегий овладения языком – синтетической и аналитической. Другими словами, проявляется склонность к правополушарным, либо левополушарным действиям с языковым материалом. Показательной в плане индивидуализации обучения является ситуация дезавтоматизации речи, возникающая, когда ребёнку предъявляется другой стиль, чужая лексика, непривычная логика повествования. Дезавтоматизация речи – это фактически её остановка, она может возникнуть и в устной, и в письменной речи ученика. В учебных целях такая остановка полезна для рассматривания, осознания какого-либо нового языкового явления, представленного в чужом тексте. Здесь возможны �Содержание два вида эффективного поведения учителя: • Учитель фиксирует моменты спонтанной дезавтоматизации речи, уточняет у ученика причины остановки, подбирает примеры аналогичных языковых ситуаций, побуждает ученика интерпретировать вместе с ним лингвистическую суть наблюдаемого языкового явления. Предлагаемая цепочка действий, как правило, реализуется во фрагментах нескольких уроков и становится учебным навыком для всего класса. • Учитель создаёт специальные учебные задания, рассчитанные на дезавтоматизацию речи, с последующим обсуждением возникших вариантов её преодоления на уроке. Одной из задач школьного языкового образования является обучение самостоятельной письменной речи. Письменной речью называется форма речи, связанная с выражением мыслей в графической форме и включающая таким образом два вида речевой деятельности: продуктивный (собственно письмо) и рецептивный (чтение). Продуктивная письменная речь предполагает развитие умения продуцировать собственный письменный текст, сочетающий при необходимости такие формы речи как описание, повествование, рассуждение, а также умение письменно репродуцировать аудиотекст. Умение продуцировать собственный письменный текст тесно связано с умением анализировать (понимать) содержание первичного текста и умение перерабатывать информацию в соответствии с учебными и коммуникативными задачами, а также в соответствии с требованиями жанра. Обучение письменной речи – трудная учебная задача, решение которой сопряжено с естественным сопротивлением обучающихся. Ученикам ближе и привычнее опыт устной речи. Письменная речь, связанная с построением собственных текстов, воспринимается, как правило, и учителем, и учеником как ограничение речевой свободы. Речевые штампы становятся спасительным учебным островком, который часто разрастается до размеров ментального материка. Живая мысль порой с большим трудом получает адекватное языковое облачение. Таким образом, можно сформулировать лингводидактическую задачу для методистов. Она связана с уточнением форм учебного материала и способов учебной деятельности, объединяющих формальнологический, коммуникативно-деятельностный и эмоционально-эстетический подходы к преподаванию языка. Обратимся к опыту педагога-исследователя А.М. Лобка. Он считает, что проблема овладения письменной речью – это проблема формирования потребности в письменной речи. В традиционной школе ребёнку навязывается чужой словарь и предлагается записывать чьи-то чужие фразы и предложения. И так получается, что ценность письменной речи для ребёнка фактически состоит в освоении орфографии. В школе А.М. Лобка был проведён эксперимент с младшими школьниками, ещё не обученными письму. Учитель читал интересные чужие тексты, составлял свои, обсуждал, ставил творческие задачи, вдохновляющие ребёнка на создание своего текста. В результате появлялись сначала тексты, записанные взрослыми вслед за ребёнком, затем, по мере освоения письма, ученики сами записывали свои тексты. Роль грамматики в эксперименте А.М. Лобка выполняла поэтика: именно она служила основным регулятором и модулятором письменной речи ребёнка. Дети научились видеть это «прозрачное стекло» грамматики, но не через механизм понятийного анализа, а через литературные (эстетические) интуиции. Так родилась практическая грамматика как важнейшее условие письменной речи. В опыте личного текстообразования дети приобрели способность некоего внутреннего редактора, научились просеивать поток слов и превращать его в текст. Если этот внутренний редактор не сформирован, человек так и не научится оформлять свои мысли в письменные тексты. Речь идёт о чувстве текста. А.М. Лобок делает вывод: «Если удалось сформировать у ребёнка чувство текста (у �Содержание каждого – глубоко индивидуальное), само это чувство становится мотивационной пружиной письма. … И тогда учитель выступает не в роли носителя учебной нормы письма, а в роли знатока индивидуально-многообразных стилей письма, представленных в культуре» (выделено нами – Т.К.). Сегодня важно актуализировать в школьной образовательной системе следующий тезис: языковой опыт, языковое чувство, языковая рефлексия, языковой вкус играют в интеллектуальном развитии человека важную роль. Эти категории являются природосообразными, данными человеку от рождения и сопровождающими его в процессе индивидуального духовного роста. Учёт этих категорий поможет, на наш взгляд, улучшить, оздоровить мотивационные установки учеников и учителей. �Содержание Вопросы и задания для самостоятельной работы 1. Обратите внимание на варианты речевой тактики окружающих ребёнка людей: а) матери (директивный, декларативный, семейно-корпоративный или какой-нибудь другой тип); б) учителя (директивный, декларативный, учебно-корпоративный или какой-нибудь другой тип); в) других значимых для ребёнка людей. Какие языко-речевые формы характерны для каждого типа? Какие ответные детские реакции порождают? Запишите свои наблюдения во время педагогической практики. 2. Существует ли в наше время проблема сенсорного голодания, в каких ситуациях и формах её можно наблюдать? Приведите примеры личных наблюдений. 3. Проследите и опишите моменты спонтанной дезавтоматизации речи в учебном и бытовом контекстах. �Содержание 1.3. Что показывает стенограмма урока? О составлении планов и конспектов урока написано достаточно много пособий, они есть практически для каждого класса. Интернет также наполнен примерами разных методических разработок. Наш опыт показывает, что наиболее эффективным материалом для обучения молодого учителя являются стенограммы уроков, которые говорят не о том, как должно быть, а о том, как реально на уроке разворачивается учебная коммуникация. Стенограммой мы называем дословную запись урока, сделанную с аудиозаписи. В дословном тексте урока можно увидеть и проанализировать все учебные ситуации – объяснения, обсуждения, проверки понимания, дополнительные пояснения в ситуации ошибки, недопонимания, реплики (комментирующие, дополняющие, критикующие, вопрошающие, отсылающие к предыдущему коллективному опыту). Фиксируются также моменты тишины, паузы, смеха. Таким образом, создаётся полная вербальная картина урока с возможным указанием на некоторые невербальные элементы. Обратимся к филологической интерпретации урока В.И. Тюпой: «Любой урок может быть рассмотрен как единый текст, чем он и оказывается на деле, будучи запечатлён в стенограмме. Всякий текст, будучи совокупностью знаков, обладает тремя важнейшими функциями: 1) креативной (у текста есть инициатор высказывания: автор, составитель, организатор данного знакового комплекса); 2) референтной (у текста есть смысл: в данной совокупности знаки нечто сообщают); 3) рецептивной (у текста есть потенциальный адресат: кем-то этот смысл может быть понят). По отношению к стенограмме урока как текста, инициированного учителем, под креативной функцией следует понимать коммуникативное поведение педагога, под референтной – тему урока, под рецептивной – коммуникативное поведение учащихся. Понятие «коммуникативного поведения» включает в себя при этом как внешнюю (риторическую) сторону говорения, мимики, жестикуляции, так и внутреннюю (ментальную) сторону занятой позиции, мыслительных актов, психологических реакций» [Тюпа]. Понятно, что труднее всего определить места в стенограмме, которые содержат возможности коммуникативно-деятельностной реконструкции, возможности описания ментальных процессов участников урока. Задача облегчается при наличии плана-конспекта данного урока. Параллельное чтение их позволяет увидеть важные моменты, которые можно назвать схемой анализа стенограммы: 1) количество этапов и учебных ситуаций урока и их целеполагание, 2) воплощённые по плану и вновь возникшие на уроке учебные ситуации, способы их решения (развития), 3) объём речи учителя и речи учеников, 4) формат предъявления мотивационного учебного контекста (связь нового с известным, востребованность речевого опыта учеников, наличие учебной интриги, точек удивления), 5) вербально-смысловое наполнение каждой учебной ситуации внутри каждого этапа урока (логика вопросов и качество их формулировки, темп восприятия учениками речи учителя, направленность реплик и вопросов учеников), 6) удачность («слишком просто» / «слишком сложно») «заготовленных» заданий для реализации задач урока, �Содержание 7) возможные ресурсы урока – содержательные и организационно-коммуникативные (с указанием конкретной ситуации урока и целевой установки), Во время такой аналитической работы желательно, в частности, иметь в виду педагогические постулаты французского педагога Френе Селена (1896–1966). Например, такие: • Ребёнок, как и взрослый, не любит слушать то, о чем не просили и в чём не испытывают нужды. Когда вы на уроке менторским тоном объясняете учебный материал, вас никто не слушает. Но попробуйте организовать учебную работу так, чтобы ребёнку пришлось действовать самому, чтобы он экспериментировал, исследовал, выбирал и классифицировал информационные материалы. Тогда он будет задавать вам вопросы, которые его так или иначе заинтересовали, а вы будете на них отвечать. В результате получится то, что мы называем: урок a posteriori, то есть строящийся на основе опыта. • Учителю нужно как можно меньше говорить. Постарайтесь не вдаваться в объяснения по любому поводу. Имейте в виду, что личность формируется не с помощью объяснений и демонстраций, а в процессе собственной деятельности и экспериментального нащупывания. При этом вы должны, безусловно, хорошо владеть необходимым материалом и методами, которые поднимут вашу педагогику на качественно новую ступень. • Любой человек стремится к успеху. Неудача тормозит работу и лишает энтузиазма. Обескураженный своими неудачами, ребёнок ищет другие пути – обычно предосудительные, – чтобы хоть в чем-нибудь преуспеть. Нужно всегда способствовать успехам детей. От этого непосредственно зависит эффективность обучения. Приводим для анализа конспект планируемого урока, составленного учителем (приводится в авторской редакции), и стенограмму, дословно фиксирующую ход этого урока, оформленную студентамипрактикантами 3 курса филологического факультета. План урока для 5 класса по теме «Что изучает синтаксис и пунктуация» (учебник под ред. М.М. Разумовской) Ход урока I. Организационный момент. II. Введение в тему. 1. Слово учителя. Сегодня на уроке мы продолжим путешествие по Стране Русского языка. На прошлых уроках мы с удовольствием повторяли орфографию, морфологию, фонетику, орфоэпию, лексику. И сегодня мы будем изучать следующие разделы языкознания. А как они называются, вы напишете сами, если правильно ответите на все вопросы по повторению. 2. Повторение в форме блиц-опроса (записывается первая буква слова-ответа): • часть речи, обозначающая предмет; • падеж, отвечающий на вопрос кто?; • неизменяемая часть речи, отвечающая на вопросы как? где? когда?; • название падежа, который отвечает на вопрос кем?; �Содержание • слова, противоположные по значению; • часть слова, в которой заключено значение всех родственных слов; • морфема, стоящая между корнем и окончанием; • самый распространённый союз; • звук, который мы слышим на конце слова груз. Какое же слово получилось? – Синтаксис. 3. Изучение нового материала Прочитайте слова, записанные на доске: 1) старая, красться, мокрый, лиса, дождь, тропинка, по, в; 2) сестра, брат, понравиться, предложение; 3) народ, мало, на, быть, каток. Что нужно сделать, чтобы из этих слов составить словосочетания, предложение? (изменить форму, применив предлоги, изменив окончание, поменять местами, т. е. установить смысловые и грамматические связи). Составьте из этих слов предложения и запишите их в тетрадь. (В дождь старая лиса кралась по мокрой тропинке. Сестре понравилось предложение брата. Народу на катке было мало.) У нас получились предложения. Из предложений состоит текст. Словосочетания, предложения, текст – это единицы синтаксиса. Запомните! Изучая синтаксис, вы узнаете, как устанавливать смысловые и грамматические связи между словами, т. е. по каким правилам соединяются слова в словосочетания и предложения. Знаки препинания помогают правильно понять смысл написанного. Правила употребления знаков препинания изучает пунктуация. Пунктуация – это раздел науки о языке, изучающий систему знаков препинания и правила их постановки. Пунктуация – punctum = точка (лат.) В школе изучают 10 знаков препинания. . точка ? ! … , ; : – () «» вопросительный знак восклицательный знак многоточие запятая точка с запятой двоеточие тире скобки двойные (круглые) кавычки двойные 4. Выступление ребят «Из истории знаков препинания» �Содержание 5. Мотивация и координация деятельности учащихся, контроль выполнения задания Расставьте, где нужно, запятые в стихотворной шутке: …кисель там варят из резины Там шины делают из глины Кирпич там жгут из молока Творог готовят из песка Стекло там плавят из бетона Плотины строят из картона Обложки там из чугуна Там варят сталь из полотна Кроят рубахи из пластмассы Посуду делают из мяса Котлеты стряпают из сажи Там ваксу делают из пряжи Прядут там нитки из сукна Костюмы шьют… Разделите текст на предложения и запишите его: Я возвращался с охоты и шёл по аллее сада собака бежала впереди меня вдруг она уменьшила свои шаги и начала красться, как бы зачуяв перед собою дичь. 6. Работа с учебником Выполнение упр. 385, 386, 388. 7. Рефлексия 8. Запись домашнего задания (упр. 387), выставление отметок. Перейдём к стенограмме урока. Предлагаем проанализировать стенограмму с учётом плана урока. Для этого: 1) выделите и назовите все учебные ситуации урока. 2) если есть незавершённые учебные ситуации, предложите свой вариант их результативного завершения. 3) установите логику мыслительной работы по теме урока. Есть ли в уроке логические «неувязки», не обеспеченные поясняющими «связками», переходами от одной учебной ситуации к другой? 4) посмотрите, есть ли в уроке необоснованные темой, типом урока задания? Предложите вариант их замены. 5) пронаблюдайте оговорки, неточности в речи учеников. Как на них реагирует учитель? Возможны ли �Содержание другие способы уместного контекстного реагирования? 6) восстановите отсутствующий в плане список базовых и новых языковых умений в рамках заданной темы и типа урока. 7) были ли варианты ответов учеников, варианты выполнения заданий? Как было организовано их обсуждение? Тренируясь видеть все составляющие урока на чужом материале, можно научиться самому строить полноценные, живые уроки, мотивирующие учеников на мыслительную активность и интеллектуальную радость. Стенограмма урока русского языка в 5 классе по теме «Что изучает синтаксис и пунктуация» (работу выполнили студенты 3 курса В. Бакулина, Ю. Иванова, Т. Куткина, Е. Мальцева, А. Шагирова после посещения урока в школе № 64 г. Барнаула). Учитель: Подравнялись, глазки на меня подняли. Здравствуйте! Садитесь. Итак, у нас сегодня присутствуют на уроке гости, пожалуйста, повернитесь, поздоровайтесь. Ученики хором: Здравствуйте! Учитель: А теперь представьте, что у нас никого на уроке нет, и мы работаем с вами в обычном режиме. На дом вам было задано составить план по тексту, упражнение 273, для дальнейшей работы с текстом. Пожалуйста, откройте тетради, я пройду, ваши планы посмотрю, а после урока вы мне тетради сдадите. Хорошо? Учитель проходит, смотрит планы Учитель: Молодец, сделал! Учитель: Ну что ж, ребята, ваши планы я посмотрю. Сегодня мы продолжаем путешествовать по стране русского языка. Мы уже очень много разделов с вами охватывали – и морфологию, и лексику, и фонетику. А сегодня мы продолжаем путешествовать, и в какую страну сегодня мы попадем, я предлагаю вам выяснить самим. А для этого ответьте, пожалуйста, на вопросы. Первая буква названия нашей темы – это часть речи, обозначающая предмет. Как называется? Ученики: Существительное. Учитель: Существительное. Совершенно верно. Вторая буковка – падеж, отвечающий на вопрос «кто?» Падеж, отвечающий на вопрос – «кто?» Ученики: Именительный. Учитель: Именительный падеж, тааааак. Третья буква – это неизменяемая часть речи, отвечающая на вопрос «как?», «когда?», «где?». Ученик: Наречие? Учитель: Да, наречие. Молодцы! Мы наречие еще не проходили, но вы знаете о нём. Умнички! Так, следующая буква – слова противоположные, ой, простите, ребята. Название падежа, который отвечает на вопрос «кем?», «чем?». Ученики: Творительный. Учитель: Творительный. Так, следующая буква – слова, противоположные по значению. Слова противоположные по значению. Дима! Ученик: Антонимы. Учитель: Антонимы. Часть слова, в которой заключено значение всех родственных слов. �Содержание Ученик: Корень. Учитель: Корень, громче надо отвечать, чтобы все слышали. Морфема, стоящая между корнем и су…, простите, окончанием. Между корнем и окончанием. Ученики: Суффикс. Учитель: (Улыбаясь) Да, суффикс. Самый распространённый союз, который мы очень любим? Ученики: И. Учитель: Союз и. И последнее: звук, который мы слышим в слове «груз»? Ученики: З - з - з. Учитель: Ребята, звук. Ученики: С - с. Учитель: Конечно, с-с-с. Итак, посмотрите внимательно, ребята, тема нашего урока..? Ученики: Синтаксис. Учитель: Синтаксис, правильно, ударение на первый слог. Синтаксис. Скажите, пожалуйста, знакомы ли вы с этим понятием? Ученики: Нет. Учитель: Знаете что-то о нём? Ученики: Нет. Учитель: Так какова цель урока нашего!? Настя? Ученица: Узнать, что такое синтаксис. Учитель: Узнать что такое синтаксис. Может быть, ещё у кого-то цель возникла сразу? Дима? Ученик: Применить это…предложение… Зашептались в классе Учитель: Применять это знание на практике. Да? Ученик: Изучать новые…су…(невнятно). Учитель: Изучать новые правила, наверное, какие-то? Да? Ученик: И в конце это всё закрепить. Учитель: И в конце это всё закрепить. Прекрасно. Спасибо. Обратите внимание, ребята, на эпиграф к нашему уроку, к нашему разделу. Зачитывает: «Как из букв составляются слоги, из слогов – слова, так и из правильного соединения слов составляются предложения». Тишина. Кто-то кашляет. Учитель: Это слова Аполлония Дискола, греческого грамматика, который впервые…жил во II веке до нашей эры и первым создал учение о синтаксисе. Скажите, пожалуйста, ребята, каково вот здесь ключевое слово данного эпиграфа? Можете найти ключевое слово? Вот из этих слов выбрать одно, на которое нам нужно опираться в изучении синтаксиса. А ну-ка, Андрей. Андрей: Составление предложения? Учитель: Так… составление предложения, а ещё? Ученики: Соединения слов!? Учитель: Соединения слов. А ключевое? Ученики: (Тихо) Правильного… �Содержание Учитель: Правильного, конечно, то есть мы можем соединять слова и составлять слова, но не получать при этом ни предложений, ни текста. Да? А самое главное – это правильно соединять и составлять слова, и тогда у нас получатся хорошие, добротные тексты, да? Сочинения наши. Итак, мы молодцы! Давайте же с вами обратимся к учебнику и узнаем, что же за синтаксис такой, что же это за страна такая? Откройте, пожалуйста, ваши учебники, параграф сорок девять, страница сто двадцать четыре. Все перелистывают свои книги. Учитель: Параграф сорок девять, страница сто двадцать четыре. Пожалуйста, Олег, прочитай нам, что же такое синтаксис. Ученик: (Зачитывает) Это раздел науки о языке, в котором изучаются словосочетания и предложения и их строение. Учитель: Раздел науки о языке, в котором изучаются словосочетания, предложения и их строение. Правильное, да? Строение…Правильно! Хорошо. Обратите внимание, ребят. Давайте с вами откроем тетрадки и запишем, сегодня седьмое декабря, классная работа, (указывает на доску), седьмое декабря, классная работа. Все открывают тетради и записывают. Учитель: Седьмое декабря, классная работа…Тема урока: Синтаксис. Синтаксис. Все пишут. Учитель: Так. Все записали? Глазки на меня поднимите, кто записал. (Пауза) Обратите внимание, на доске записаны слова. Прочитай, пожалуйста, Данил Васечкин, первую группу слов. (Кто-то чихнул) Данил: я не… Учитель: Не видишь, хорошо. Эльмира, помоги, пожалуйста. Эльмира: (Зачитывает) Старая, краситься, лиса… Учитель: Красться. Ученица: Мокро, дождь… Учитель: Что это такое перед нами, ребят? Что это? Ученица: Это разобранное предложение. Учитель: Это разобранное предложение, молодец. Это набор слов, из которых мы можем собрать, да? Сконструировать наше предложение. А во втором случае это что!? Это тоже так же или нет!? А ну-ка, Дима, прочитай, пожалуйста. Дима: (Зачитывает) Сестра, брат, понравился, пред-ло-жение. Учитель: Что это такое перед нами? Ученики: Слова. Учитель: Тоже слова, тоже набор слов. И под третьей циферкой. (Ученица тянет руку) Настя! Настя: Народ, мало, на, быть, каток. Учитель: Так, предложение это? Ученица: Да. Учитель: Предложение? Ученики: Нет. Учитель: Вот, в данном случае? Ученики: Слова. �Содержание Учитель: Это просто набор слов. Так вот, ребят, задание у нас с вами такое, нам нужно из вот разобранных слов, разбросанных, составить предложения. Пожалуйста, поработайте в парах и составьте предложения из данных слов. Первый ряд – возьмите первое предложение, второй ряд – возьмите второе предложение, вернее, вторую группу слов, и третий ряд – третью группу слов. Поработайте в парах. Разговоры в классе. Учитель: Да, да, кстати, ребят, а что нам нужно сделать, чтобы составить это предложение? Что нам нужно сделать? Вика! Вика. Изменить слова, сделать предложение, чтобы оно было по смыслу. Учитель: Связаны по смыслу… А когда мы изменяем окончание, связываем каким образом по смыслу? Ученики: По смыслу. Учитель: По смыслу и ещё как? Грамма… Ученики: Грамматически! Учитель: Грамматически. Хорошо, давайте, пожалуйста, первый ряд – первая группа слов, второй ряд – вторая группа слов и третий ряд – третья группа слов. В парах составьте предложение (уже идёт обсуждение в парах) и запишите то, что у вас получилось. Ученица: А можно добавлять слова? Учитель: Нет, только из того, что здесь есть. Ученица: Записывать? Учитель: Да, предложения записываем, конечно же, в тетрадку. Идёт обсуждение в парах. Учитель: Кто сделал, ручку поднимите. Учитель ходит по рядам и проверяет работу учеников. Учитель: Так, ну, пожалуйста, Артём, что у тебя получилось? Ученик: Старая лиса крадётся по тропинке в дождь. Учитель: Старая лиса крадётся по тропинке в дождь. Так…может, у кого-то другое предложение получилось? Вероника? Вероника: Мокрая лиса кралась по старой тропинке в дождь. Учитель: Мокрая лиса кралась по старой тропинке в дождь. Так, Артем, как у тебя получилось? Артём: Старая лиса крадётся под дождем. Учитель: Старая лиса крадётся под дождем. Ребят, а у меня получилось вот так: В дождь старая лиса кралась по тропинке мокрой. Смотрите, как мы с вами по-разному… Мокрой пропустила. Смотрите, как мы с вами по-разному составили предложения из одних и тех же слов. Да? Хорошо. Второй ряд, пожалуйста. Что у вас получилось? Дима! Дима: У меня получилось: Сестре понравилось брата предложение. Учитель: Сестре понравилось предложение брата, наверное, да? Здесь нужно поменять местами или нет? Дима: Я так написал. Учитель: Так написал. Все. �Содержание Ученик: Сестре и брату понравилось предложение. Учитель: Сестре и брату. А у нас здесь есть союз и? Ты сам добавил. Тебе понравилось так. Посчитал нужным, что добавить просто необходимо, просто союз и. Так тоже, наверное, можно, я думаю. Пожалуйста. Ученик: Брату понравилось предложение сестры. Учитель: Брату понравилось предложение сестры. Есть ещё у кого-то вариант? Есть. Ученик: Сестре брата понравилось предложение. Учитель: Сестре БРАТА понравилось предложение. Вот. Смотрите, какая интересная наука СИНТАКСИС, да? И третий ряд, пожалуйста. Данил. Данил: Мало народу было на катке. Учитель: Мало народу было на катке. Андрей! Андрей: Мало было народу на катке. Учитель: Мало БЫЛО народу на катке. Так, всё? Нет больше ни у кого вариантов? А у меня такой вариант … Ученик: На катке было мало народу. Учитель: У меня точно так же. На катке было мало народу. Ну, в любом случае, ребята, каждый вариант, который вы представили, он ведь верный на самом деле. Правда? Или нет? Ученики: Да. Учитель: Но на что здесь нужно еще обратить внимание? Наверное, на логическое ударение. Помните, мы говорили с вами о логическом ударении? В зависимости от того, что мы хотим сказать, какую мысль донести до того, кто читает этот текст или до того, с кем мы разговариваем. Да? Мы выделяем еще слова логическим ударением. Ну что ж, хорошо. Идём с вами дальше. Пожалуйста, откройте свои учебники там, где у вас рубрика «Возьмите на заметку». Это 125 страничка, 125 страничка. Ой, ребят, я немножко ошиблась. Это правило второе на 124 странице, правило под номером 2 – «Изучая синтаксис…». Ангелина! Ангелина (читает учебник): Изучая синтаксис, вы узнаёте, как между словами, предложениями и словосочетаниями устанавливаются определённые смысловые грамматические связи. Учитель: Только узнаете, да? Потому, что когда мы будем изучать синтаксис, мы узнаем. И, пожалуйста, третье. Ученик (читает учебник): Правильно понять смысл написанного помогают знаки препинания. Правило употребления знаков препинания изучает пунктуация. Учитель: Пунктуация. И вот подошли, ребята, к той помощнице, которая помогает нам понять смысл написанного. Запишите, пожалуйста, в своих тетрадках. Пунктуация – что же это такое? Это раздел науки о языке, в котором изучаются правила употребления знаков препинания. Наука о языке, в котором изучается правило употребления знаков препинания. Пунктуация – раздел науки о языке, в котором изучаются правила употребления знаков препинания. Ученик: Изучается...? Учитель: Правило употребления знаков препинания. Скажите, ребят, какие мы с вами знаки препинания уже знаем? Какие вам знакомы? Настя! Настя: Восклицательный знак. Учитель: Восклицательный знак (пишет на доске). Так. Артём! Артём: Точка, запятая, троеточие, восклицательный знак. �Содержание Учитель: Точка, запятая, троеточие (пишет на доске). Ещё, пожалуйста. Ученик: Вопросительный знак. Учитель: Вопросительный знак. Ученик: Кавычки. Учитель: Кавычки. Таня! Кавычки. Ещё? Таня: Скобки. Учитель: Скобки какие, круглые? Таня: Да Учитель: Круглые. Не путаем, да, с фонетической транскрипцией. Ученик: Точка с запятой. Учитель: Точка запятой уже у нас есть. Ученик: Значит двоеточие. Учитель: Двоеточие. Ученик: Запятая. Учитель: Запятая тоже есть. Ученик: Тире. Учитель: Ой, молодец какой! Тире. У нас ещё есть такая… Такой знак препинания.. Ещё есть, ребята, двоеточие. Да, помните? Двоеточие. Ученики: Уже это говорили. Учитель: Ага. Всё, да? Ученик: Троеточие? Учитель: Троеточие тоже было. Я приглашаю ребят, которые подготовили нам небольшое сообщение о знаках препинания. Пожалуйста, выходите к доске. Небольшой экскурс возникновения этой науки – пунктуации. Ученики (по очереди читают с листков): • Пунктуация появилась намного позже, чем запись слов с помощью алфавита. До конца 15 века текст писался или вообще без промежутков между словами, или делился на нерасчленённые отрезки. • Раньше всех была введена точка – с 80-х годов XV века, затем запятая – к концу первой четверти 16 века. Появившаяся после них точка с запятой вначале употреблялась и как знак вопроса, и как промежуточный знак между двоеточием и запятой. • Упорядочение знаков препинания произошло параллельно с книгопечатанием. В книгах первой половины XVI века уже использовались запятая, точка с запятой, вопросительный знак. Чуть позже появился восклицательный знак. • В «Грамматике словенской» Мелетия Смотрицкого 1619 года появились круглые скобки, которые называли «вместным знаком». • К концу XVIII века стали известны тире, кавычки и многоточие. Тире или «черту» первым начал применять русский писатель и историк Н.М. Карамзин. А языковед Антон Алексеевич. Барсов (1730–1791), ученик М.В. Ломоносова, называл этот знак «молчанкой». • Другие знаки препинания раньше тоже имели иные наименования: точку с запятой называли �Содержание «полуточием», восклицательный знак – «удивительным», кавычки – «пресекательным» или «отменительным» знаком, а перенос – «единительным». Учитель: Спасибо большое. Ребят, как вы думаете, насколько важны нам знаки препинания в нашей письменной или устной форме речи? Как вы думаете? Важны они для нас или можно без них обойтись? Как вот в самом начале? Ученик: Они важны. Учитель: Почему? Ученик: Потому, что без них текст будет тоже непонятен. Учитель: Да, смысл текста нам будет не совсем понятен. Артём! Артём: И знаки препинания тоже интонацию ещё дают. Учитель: Конечно. Мы не сможем правильно интонировать текст, который мы читаем. Андрей! Андрей: Как в этой сказке «Казнить нельзя, помиловать». Учитель: «В стране невыученных уроков». Всем известная сказка, в которой как раз знак препинания для нас и играл ведущую роль. «Казнить нельзя, помиловать». (Обращаясь к ученику) Что? Ученик: И ещё будет непонятен смысл текста, который человек хочет передать. Учитель: Конечно, абсолютно верно. Я предлагаю вам обратиться сейчас к учебнику. Упражнение 375. Прочитайте текст и установите, какова его основная мысль. Какова его основная мысль. Ксюша, прочитай текст. Ксюша (читает): В книге «Знаки препинания», вышедшей в 1883 году, её автор, Ган, пишет: «Один преступник, осуждённый на смертную казнь, подал королю прошение о помиловании. Великодушный король наложил на прошение резолюцию: «Помиловать, не следует казнить». Но секретарь по ошибке переставил запятую, и резАляция… Учитель: резОлюция. Ученик: Резолюция получилась в таком виде: «Помиловать не следует, казнить». Учитель: Да, вот тот же, да, пример из жизни, который мы с вами наблюдали в сказке. Скажите, основная мысль текста в чём заключается? Степа! Стёпа: (Кашляет) что…секретарь не разобрался…в предложении. Учитель: Дима! Дима: В том, что …нельзя обойтись без знаков препинания. Учитель: Да, нельзя обойтись без знаков препинания. А еще? Что нужно подчеркнуть? Дима: Правильную их расстановку. Учитель: Да, правильную их расстановку, конечно. Ребят, я хочу прочитать вам сейчас стихотворение, которое у вас представлено в раздаточном материале. Кисель там варят из резины. Там шины делают из глины. Кирпич там жгут из молока. Творог готовят из песка. Стекло там плавят из бетона. Плотину строят из картона. Обложки там из чугуна. Там варят сталь из полотна. Кроят рубахи из пластмассы. Посуду делают из мяса. Котлеты стряпают из сажи. Там ваксу делают из пряжи. Прядут там нитки из сукна. Костюмы шьют. Ученик: Из полотна… Учитель: Из полотна… скажите, пожалуйста, ребят, стихотворение шуточное, да? а скажите, пожалуйста, а почему вызывает оно у нас улыбку? Ученик: эээ… потому что там все слова поменялись местами. �Содержание Учитель: Местами ли они поменялись? Ну-ка, Артем… Артём: Там нет запятых. Учитель: Нет запятых и нет знаков препинания и поэтому, Артём: Поэтому получается непонятный текст. Учитель: Текст получается не просто «непонятным», но каким? Ученик: Без смысла. Ученик: Смешным. Учитель: Смешным получается, да, текст? Как можно сварить кисель из резины? Что же нам нужно сделать, чтобы текст для нас стал понятным? Стёпа! Стёпа: Расставить запятые. Учитель: Расставить запятые. Я предлагаю вам сейчас это сделать. Прямо в ваших раздаточных листочках. Итак, работайте в паре и подумайте, где же нужно поставить запятые. Карандашиком прямо здесь можно поставить. (Слышно, как ученики обсуждают в паре ответы). Учитель: Готовы, ребят? Ученики: Да. Учитель: Лес рук, не знаю, кого и спросить. Ученик тянет руку: Мы готовы. Учитель: Пожалуйста, давайте сделаем так. Пожалуйста, Настя, начни. Настя: Кисель там варят, из резины там шины делают… Учитель: Давай проговаривать. Запятая, да? Чтоб мы знали, где ты поставила. Настя: Кисель там варят, запятая, из резины там шины делают, запятая. Из глины кирпич там жгут, запятая, из молока творог готовят запятая… Учитель: Да, спасибо. Дальше, пожалуйста, Данил. Из молока… Данил: Из молока… из песка стекло там плавят. Учитель: Запятая, да? Учитель: …из песка. Помогай, Вика. Вика: Из песка стекло там плавят, из бетона плотину строят, из картона обложки …. Учитель: Стоп, Обложки, запятая. Так, дальше Никита. Из чугуна… Никита: Из чугуна там варят сталь… Учитель: Из чугуна там варят сталь, запятая, да? Артём: Из полотна кроят рубахи, запятая, из пластмассы посуду делают. Учитель: Да, спасибо, Артём. Из полотна... ой, из пластмассы посуду делают. Ученик: Посуду делают, запятая, из мяса котлеты стряпают, запятая, из сажи ваксу делают, запятая, из пряжи прядут там нитки, запятая, из сукна, костюмы шьют. Учитель: Костюмы шьют. Спасибо большое, ребят. Скажите, пожалуйста, мы убедились с вами, насколько важны знаки препинания в нашей письменной речи? Убедились на примере… Ученик: Да. Учитель: …на примере текста, который мы прочитали в учебнике, на примере текста, который сейчас прозвучал, с которым сейчас сами поработали. Итак, второе задание, которое сейчас здесь же, в пятом �Содержание номере, да, ой, во втором номере у вас представлено. Нам нужно разделить текст на предложения и записать его в тетрадь. Прочитай, пожалуйста, Милана. Раздаточный материал, ребята, второе задание. Милана: (читает) на аудио-записи неразборчивы слова. Учитель: Пожалуйста, ребят, разделите этот текст, этот набор предложений, на предложения и запишите к себе в тетрадь. (Пауза) Ангелина, запиши текст к себе в тетрадь. (Слышно обсуждение ребят) Учитель: Уже готовый текст нужно записать в тетрадку. Ученики выполняют упражнение. Учитель: Все готовы? Заканчиваем, дописываем до точки. Всё, ребятки, отложили работу. Проверяем. Пожалуйста, Вероника, первое предложение получилось у тебя? Вероника: Я возвращался с охоты и шёл по аллее села. Учитель: Сада. Я возвращался с охоты и шёл по аллее сада .Здесь нужно поставить точку. Пожалуйста, Ангелина, второе предложение. Ангелина: Собака бежала впереди меня. Учитель: Собака бежала впереди меня. Хорошо. Захар! Захар: Вдруг она уменьшила свои шаги и начала красться (пауза) как бы почуяв перед собой дичь Учитель: Все согласны? У всех так получилось? Других вариантов нет? Есть другой вариант! Ученик: Вдруг она уменьшила свои шаги и начала красться ( запятая), как бы почуяв перед собой дичь. Учитель: Запятая здесь ставится, но вы еще не изучали этот случай. Мы только начинаем работать в разделе Синтаксис. Здесь запятая есть. То есть у всех получилось одно и то же. Один и тот же текст. Как у тебя получилось. Прочитай, пожалуйста. Ученица: Собака бежала впереди меня (запятая) вдруг она уменьшила свои шаги ( точка). И начала красться (запятая), как бы почуяв перед собой дичь. Учитель: Понятно.То есть ты поставила запятую после «вдруг», решила, что это вводное слово. Да? Нет. А я думаю все-таки, что она уменьшила свои шаги (то есть когда? – вдруг, как?) Ну что ж, хорошо поработали, все справились. А теперь давайте обратимся к учебнику. Учебник нам предлагает подобное упражнение сделать – это № 376 в ваших учебниках, а в новых – № 386. Пожалуйста, прочитайте задание, Таня. Таня (читает): Разберите текст на предложения, спишите, выделите в предложениях главные члены. Учитель: Хорошо. Пожалуйста, Ангелина. Ангелина: Утро тихо золотится в лучах летнего солнца гладь реки рыбаки… Учитель: Это у нас, что – текст? Ученики: Нет. Учитель: Надо предложения? Смысл нам ясен? Ученики: ( хором) Нет. Учитель: А почему не ясен? Стёпа, почему? Стёпа: Потому что не ставили точки. Учитель: Потому что не расставлены точки. Знаки... Ученики ( хором) … препинания. Учитель: Препинания, потому что, возможно, тут будут и другие знаки препинания (запятые), не �Содержание только точки. О которых мы с вами вспомнили сегодня. Пожалуйста, ребята, минутка на работу, разделите текст на предложения и запишите его. Работаем сегодня в рабочих тетрадках. Артём, (поясняет) разделите текст на предложения, подчеркните главные члены. Готовы? Ученики: Да. Учитель: Заканчиваем. Итак, что получилось у нас? Артём! Артём: Утро тихо… Учитель: Расставить нужно знаки препинания, ты, пожалуйста, проговори, где у тебя точки, а где запятые. Артём: Утро тихое золотистое в лучах (точка). Рыбки… Учитель: Рыбаки. Артём: ставили на берегу (запятая), ждут улова. Учитель: Как ещё получилось, Ульяна? Ульяна: Утро ( точка). Учитель: Утро (точка). Ульяна: Тихое в лучах летнего солнца (запятая), реки (запятая)… Учитель: Если бы у нас золотилась гладь и реки, то тогда бы был глагол множественного числа. Подумай ещё, послушай, как другие делают, может, что-то нужно изменить. Таня! Таня: Утро (точка). Тихо золотится в лучах летнего солнца (точка). Гладь реки (точка). Рыбаки пристроились на берегу ждут улова. Учитель: Так. Хорошо, мне вот интересно, второе предложение – тихо золотится в лучах летнего солнца. А что золотится в лучах летнего солнца? Вика! Вика: Утро (точка). Тихо золотится в лучах летнего солнца (запятая), гладь реки (точка). Рыбаки пристроились на берегу (запятая), ждут улова. Учитель: Подчеркните, пожалуйста, ребята, главные члены в своих предложениях, которые вы составили. Подчеркните, пожалуйста, и посмотрите, может, вам, опираясь на главные члены, будет проще и удобнее расставить (разделить) слова на предложения. Артём, что у тебя получилось? Артём: Утро (точка). Тихо (точка). Золотится в лучах летнего солнца (запятая), гладь реки (точка). Рыбаки пристроились на берегу (запятая), ждут улова. Учитель: Так. Почему же вы перед «гладь реки» запятую-то ставите? Мне очень интересно. Ну-ка пожалуйста… Ученица: Утро (точка). Учитель: Утро тихо, точка? Ученица: Утро (точка). Тихо золотится в лучах летнего солнца гладь реки (точка). Рыбаки пристроились на берегу (запятая), ждут улова. Учитель: Да. Ну, Никита, ещё раз пожалуйста. Никита: Утро (точка). Тихо золотится в лучах летнего солнца гладь реки (точка). Рыбаки пристроились на берегу (запятая), ждут улова. Учитель: Утро (точка). Предложение односоставное. Тихо золотится в лучах летнего солнца гладь реки (точка). Гладь реки – «что?», гладь что делает? Зачем ставили запятую между сказуемым и подлежащим? Она не нужна. Рыбаки пристроились на берегу (запятая), (почему?) – ждут улова. Что перед нами? Однородные члены. �Содержание Видите, как сложно, оказывается, составить текст из слов, так, чтобы он был читаемым, понятным. Скажите, пожалуйста, давайте подведём итоги урока нашего (звонок). Мы немножно не успели. О чём же мы сегодня говорили, и какой вывод мы должны сделать из всей нашей работы. Стёпа! Стёпа: Мы узнали, что такое СинтАксис. Учитель: СИнтаксис. Стёпа: СИнтаксис – это раздел науки о языке, который… (пауза) Учитель: Изучает… Стёпа: Изучает сочетания. Учитель: Словосочетания. Ещё мы узнали что? Говоря о пунктуации, что мы узнали, на что обращали внимание? Ученица: На знаки препинания. Учитель: И какой вывод сделали? Ученица: Что знаки препинания важны и нужно их ставить правильно. Учитель: Да, конечно, знаки препинания, нужно ставить правильно! Откройте свои дневники, запишите домашнее задание. Ученики: Мы их сдали. Учитель: На полях в тетрадочках аккуратно запишите: параграф 49, упражнение 378. Ребята, упражнение 378. Вам нужно выразительно прочитать текст об Александре Пешковском и списать второй абзац, подготовиться к пересказу. Спасибо всем за работу. Набравшись опыта записи стенограмм, можно научиться хронометрировать каждое учебное действие/ ситуацию, соотносить затраченное время с замыслом и приобретаемыми умениями и качествами обучающихся. �Содержание Задания для наблюдения, размышления и обсуждения 1. Познакомьтесь с творчеством французского педагога и мыслителя Френе Селестена по материалам Интернета. Сделайте конспект актуальных для вас педагогических постулатов, подготовьтесь к обсуждению в аспекте вашего опыта подготовки урока и анализа стенограммы урока. 2. Проясните для себя в процессе анализа стенограммы мысль В.И. Тюпы: «Разъясняющий монолог учителя целесообразен не ранее, чем после возникновения у аудитории достаточно чёткого и ясного ощущения лакуны в её представлениях о мире и жизни, о предмете разговора, о путях решения открывающихся проблем. Без внутренней потребности школьника в восполнении ставшего и для него ощутимым пробела никакое, самое блестящее «раскрытие темы» не приведёт к существенному дидактическому результату». 3. Выделите в стенограмме фрагменты, по содержанию которых можно судить о стадии формирования языковой компетенции ученика: а) демонстрирующие речевой опыт ребёнка, б) предъявляющие знания о языке, в) создающие ситуативные смыслы в поле контекстов понимания (см. главу 3). 4. Прочитайте статью http://ps.1september.ru/article.php?ID=200005303, выполните тесты, сделайте для себя выводы. �Содержание 2. Как сделать урок когнитивно значимым для носителя языка? Познавательную значимость урока можно создавать разными способами. Например, формулируя тему урока через вопрос: Из чего состоят слова? Как меняется значение слова с изменением приставки, суффикса при сохранении корня? Как морфемы работают на создание лексического значения слова? И всё-таки главную роль играет включённость в процесс понимания, узнавания, познания себя через язык, чужой текст, через рефлексию речевых ситуаций. Поэтому важно сочетать имеющийся опыт обучаемого и новые наблюдения и правила. Важно каждый раз создавать ситуации интеллектуального напряжения, которые разрешаются в процессе мыслительной деятельности интеллектуальной радостью. Учитель, готовя проект урока, должен всегда иметь в виду следующие важные позиции: 1. Языковой материал должен вызывать эмоциональный/интеллектуальный отклик у обучающегося, т. к. он является неосознанным сигналом целостного восприятия (например, если не было смеха в смешном месте текста, выраженном подтекстом, значит, текст не понят); 2. Языковой материал в его грамматическом формате должен сочетать учебный опыт ученика, известные языковые явления и сопряжённые с ними новые факты и закономерности (в этом плане все темы должны представляться учителю в виде смыслового поля-графа, в который он погружается вместе с учениками); 3. Теоретический материал желательно научиться перекладывать вместе с учениками в сжатые смысловые формы – ключевые слова, цепочки смысловых связок, графические картинки, опорные схемы; 4. Языковые примеры к новому материалу должны быть яркими, точными в плане отражения нового смысла и избыточными в плане соединения известного, нового актуального и нового перспективного (чего, к сожалению, не хватает в школьных учебниках); 5. Все разделы языковой системы, «разбросанные» по классам и темам, мы посчитали возможным объединить в сознании учителя и ученика через систему конкретных языковых умений (они прописаны в нашем пособии как «лексические умения», «морфологические умения» и т. п.). 2.1. Языковой материал урока: на перекрёстке речевого и учебного опыта обучаемого Задания для наблюдения, размышления и обсуждения 2.2. Моделирование наиболее существенных отношений в предметном материале 2.3. Варианты текстовых тренингов по развитию различных компонентов языковой способности учеников Вопросы и задания для самостоятельной работы �Содержание 2.1. Языковой материал урока: на перекрёстке речевого и учебного опыта обучаемого В школьной практике нередко можно наблюдать такой методический парадокс: учитель, желая привлечь учеников к интересной работе с текстом, подбирает красивый, поучительный текст, придумывает разнообразные нестандартные задания, а ученики работают неохотно, вяло, под «натиском» учителя. По ходу урока в репликах учеников слышится явная или скрытая ирония по поводу содержания текста. Становится понятно, что текст нужно менять. Видимо, любой учебный текст вызывает эстетическую и просто жизненную реакцию. Текст должен быть интересным и значимым для учеников. Это исходное условие в процедуре подбора текста для любого вида учебной текстовой деятельности. Полнота восприятия текста влияет на качество работы и на общую деятельностную установку обучающихся. Необоснованно затруднённым и слишком абстрактным является задание учителя составить ученикам свой (произвольный) текст с использованием изучаемой лексики, словосочетаний, конструкций. Трудность – в отсутствии темы. Тема для ученика символизирует начало движения мысли, намечает учебное событие по эстетической актуализации его опыта в порождаемых строчках текста. Кроме того, учебные темы могут иметь аналоги, реализованные в разных культурных и жанровых парадигмах: природные зарисовки, описание школы, театра, событий семейной жизни, путешествий, впечатлений и т. д. Из курса РКИ («Русский язык как иностранный») можно позаимствовать, например, системнотематическое изучение лексики. Элементарный уровень владения языком содержит следующие тематические группы: 1. Человек как живое существо. 1.1. Фазы жизни, возраст. 1.2. Внешность, части тела, одежда, обувь. 1.3. Здоровье. 1.4. Питание, продукты. 1.5. Жильё, мебель, бытовая техника. 1.6. Организация быта, досуга. 2. Человек как разумное существо. 2.1. Интеллект, воля, желание. 2.2. Черты характера, эмоции, состояние. 2.3. Действия, направленные на кого-либо, на что-либо. 2.4. Оценка чего-либо, кого-либо. 3. Человек и общество. 3.1. Государственное устройство (государство, родина, народ, национальный, иностранный). Власть, право. 3.2. Наименования человека, его характеристики (по месту жительства, национальности; по отношению друг к другу). 3.3. Семья, родственники. 3.4. Профессия, сферы деятельности. 3.5. Образование, наука, культура. �Содержание 3.6. Спорт. 3.7. Путешествия и туризм. 3.8. Этикет. 4. Природа. 4.1. География, континенты, климат. 4.2. Животные и растения. 4.3. Характеристика объектов по цвету, качеству, по размеру, форме, по месту расположения, по принадлежности. 5. Абстрактные понятия: время, качество, количество, вопросительные слова и т. п. Учитель готовит тематически перекликающиеся тексты заранее и предъявляет их в качестве возможных вариантов начального фрагмента текста, сюжетных развёрток и концовок. Знакомясь с ними, наблюдая их особенности, ученики невольно совершенствуются в искусстве создания собственного текста. Небрежное отношение к языковому материалу, используемому на уроке, имеет отрицательные последствия в плане развития языкового вкуса. Как, например, можно отнестись к такому предложению в учебном задании: Вследствие таяния снегов появилось половодье? Видимо, нужен был пример использования производного предлога, но получился пример речевой ошибки. Формальное отношение к языку не может обеспечить полноценное развитие языковой способности. В процессе педагогической практики студентов можно наблюдать и обратную картину. Студент 4 курса И. Ю. сам составляет художественно грамотный, насыщенный текстопорождающими элементами текст и использует его в 7 классе для выполнения весьма прозаического задания. Текст такой: Кто бы мог подумать, что весна настанет так рано. Уже солнце греет и светит по-особенному. В воздухе пахнет набухшими почками, местами из-под снега пробивается молодая трава. А ты бежишь по лужам, в которых отражается лазурное небо, и душа не может нарадоваться. Дышится легко и особенно свободно. «Влюбляйся, страдай, мечтай!» – гонит тебя беспокойное сердце. Поистине, любить весну – значит беречь любовь в сердце. Текст был написан на доске, с пропусками букв в «трудных» местах. Студент даёт задание: «Спишите текст, раскройте скобки, вставляя буквы и подчёркивая орфограммы». Привычная для ученика формулировка задания, актуализирующая внешнюю мотивацию деятельности. Орфограммы были подчёркнуты, а текст целиком так и не был никем прочитан вслух. Внутренняя мотивация, связанная с эстетическим впечатлением, отношением к тексту через призму своего языкового опыта, отсутствовала. Ещё одна распространённая ошибка в организации текстовой деятельности на уроке связана с формой подачи текста. Часто на уроке доминирует аудиальное предъявление текста, а визуализация используется реже. Известно, что стиль аудирования является определённой формой интерпретации текста. А вот чтение текста учениками, их интонирование может стать предметом обсуждения, рассматриваться как вариант понимания текста учениками. Визуальное прочтение текста позволяет сохранить новизну восприятия, без интерпретационных «помех». Итак, отталкиваясь от наблюдаемых в школьной практике примеров работы с текстами на уроках русского языка, можно сформулировать наиболее значимые принципы организации текстовой деятельности: 1) тексты должны быть интересны ученикам, должны вызывать эмоциональный и интеллектуальный отклик; 2) тексты должны быть небольшими, но целостными в художественном отношении; �Содержание 3) лучше, если с данными текстами ученики уже встречались в другой учебной или внеучебной ситуации; 4) необходимо жанровое и стилевое разнообразие текстов; 5) полезно в плане формирования индивидуального языкового вкуса и стиля брать в работу серию текстовых фрагментов одного автора; 6) в трудных случаях обучения следует прибегать к последовательному использованию одного и того же текста в разных типах заданий; 7) для обучения процедуре свёртывания и развёртывания текста можно использовать русские пословицы, их аналоги на других языках, сюжетные картинки; 8) озаглавливание (с целью развития способности к смысловому сжатию текста) следует строить на специально подобранном массиве текстов, начиная с текстов-описаний и заканчивая текстами с различными подтекстами (пример 1); 9) искусственные (как правило, игровые) тексты составляются с целью тренировки языковой интуиции (пример 2); 10) параллельное смысловое чтение двух текстов на одну тему (пример 4). �Содержание Задания для наблюдения, размышления и обсуждения 1. Прочитайте книгу Л.Н. Мурзина, А.С. Штерн «Текст и его восприятие». Сформулируйте в сжатом виде основные подходы авторов к проблеме восприятия текста. Какие позиции, на ваш взгляд, следует учитывать учителю при выборе текста для работы в классе? 2. Предложите варианты учебных действий с текстом студента И.Ю., актуализирующие внутреннюю мотивацию учеников 7 класса. 3. Переформулируйте темы учебников в серию вопросов, предположив, что они могут волновать и интересовать носителей языка в данном возрасте. 4. Сформулируйте задания к примерам учебных текстов 1 и 2. Установите класс, тему урока и цели работы с этими текстами. 5. Поясните, какие умения будут тренироваться при выполнении примера 3. Попробуйте встроить этот текст в урок, создав необходимый учебно-деятельностный контекст. 6. Подберите свои примеры текстов и заданий к ним. Проведите по ним занятие в классе. Обсудите его ход и результаты. 7. Проанализируйте предлагаемые в курсе РКИ тематические группы лексики. Что бы вы изменили, с ориентацией на определённый класс, возраст? Примеры учебных текстов Пример 1 Мне всегда кажется, что я работаю больше, чем следует. Это не означает, что я отлыниваю от работы, боже упаси! Я люблю работу. Она меня зачаровывает. Я способен сидеть и смотреть на неё часами. Я люблю копить её у себя: мысль о том, что с ней придётся когда-нибудь разделаться, надрывает мне душу. Перегрузить меня работой невозможно: набирать её стало моей страстью. Мой кабинет так набит работой, что в нём не осталось ни дюйма свободного места. Придётся пристроить к дому новое крыло. К тому же я обращаюсь со своей работой очень бережно. В самом деле: иная работа лежит у меня годами, а я даже пальцем до неё не дотронулся. И я горжусь своей работой; то и дело перекладываю её с места на место и стираю с неё пыль. Нет человека, у которого работа была бы в большей сохранности, чем у меня. (Джером К. Джером. Трое в одной лодке) Пример 2 Текст составлен персонажем-роботом, который получил задание «сотворить сказку с лирической концовкой. В сказке должны упоминаться человек, лес и звери». Лес шумел угрюмо (мрачно? огорчённо?). Лесные звери имелись в лесу том повселесно. Тем временем человек и человечица (человейка? человечка?) шли по речью (речейку?) к речке. В лесу встретились им лес и лесица, волк и волчица, лось и лосица, медведь и медведица (медвежка?). «Съем-ка я вас, человеки!» – произнёс медведь. «Не питайся нами, Михаил (Виктор? Григорий?), мы хотим житьпоживать!» – «Хорошо, – ответил медведь, – я с вами столоваться не буду…». Радостно, дружно, синхронно запели гимн восходящему светилу (луне? солнцу?) сидящие на ветках снегири, фазаны, сазаны, миноги, снетки и караси. Лес шумел весело (удовлетворённо? упитанно?). (Вадим Шефнер. Девушка у обрыва) �Содержание Пример 3 Даётся деформированный текст: УСашитёмныеглазаисветлыеволосысвихраминазатылкеСашаприглаживаетихпоминутноладонямидн ёмглазауСашисовсемнетёмныеасиниесголубизнойнаносуунеговеснушкитолькоонивовсенебольшиеуВер ыноскурносыйволосысрыжеватозолотымоттенкомоднипрядипосветлеедругиепотемнееэтоонилетом наморетаквыгорают. Задание: 1) установите границы слов, предложений, абзацев; 2) запишите свой вариант текста; 3) сравните с авторским вариантом; 4) выделите в вашем варианте места, отличающиеся от авторского текста; 5) прокомментируйте эти места: почему вы сделали именно так; 6) прочитайте варианты выполнения упражнения другими людьми. Авторский текст: Одноклассники У Саши тёмные глаза и светлые волосы с вихрами на затылке. Саша приглаживает их поминутно ладонями. Днём глаза у Саши совсем не тёмные, а синие, с голубизной. На носу у него веснушки, только они вовсе не большие. У Веры нос курносый. Волосы с рыжевато-золотым оттенком. Одни пряди посветлее, другие – потемнее. Это они летом на море так выгорают. (по С. Баруздину) �Содержание 2.2. Моделирование наиболее существенных отношений в предметном материале В настоящее время информация потеряла специальную ценность, она разлита в цифровом пространстве, и проблема не в доступе к ней, а в ограничении этого потока, точнее – в систематизации его составляющих, а ещё точнее – в создании базовой системы ориентации в предметной среде и в развитии самостоятельного мышления человека. Как отмечает Е.Д. Божович, «в обучении происходят (по крайней мере, должны происходить) два процесса: 1) осмысление и преобразование речевого опыта ребёнка под влиянием усваиваемых знаний о языке, 2) наполнение и конкретизация знаний о языке материалом речевого опыта… В известной мере эти процессы имеют место, но недостаточно учитываются и контролируются в школьной практике…» [Божович, 1997, с. 37]. Так невольно возникает разрыв между данными речевого опыта и знаниями о языке и, как следствие – отчуждение ребёнка и от знаний, и от процесса обучения. Пропишем, по возможности полно, наиболее существенные отношения в языковом материале, логикосемантическое ядро школьного предмета «Русский язык». Это ядро тесно переплетается с природными когнитивно-семантическими установками обучающихся при изучении русского языка как родного. По возможности, нельзя допускать разрыва в целостности восприятия языкового материала. Поэтому важно выстроить сквозные линии изучения языка в школе, отражающие (соединяющие), актуализирующие целостность языковой системы и целостность её восприятия носителем языка. Целостность, органичность системы языка представлена во взаимосвязи всех его уровней. Приведём таблицу Т.М. Воителевой, иллюстрирующую реализацию «функционального подхода к языку, когда структурные, системные и содержательные характеристики анализируются во взаимодействии и требуют интегрирующего изучения» [Воителева с. 21]. Таблица 1 Единицы языка Единицы языка, их свойства Уровни языка Фонетический Лексический Морфологический Синтаксический Слово (фоне тиче ское слово, ле ксе ма, словоформа, синтаксе ма) Анализ внешней оболочки фонетического слова, его звуковой состав Выяснение лексического значения, происхождения и сферы употребления слова (лексемы) Определение грамматических значений словоформы, её принадлежности к части речи Определение синтаксической функции слова (синтаксемы), его роли в построении высказывания Словосоче тание Анализ звуков в потоке речи Пре дложе ние Выделение интонации, ударения Более точное обозначение Анализ лексических предмета, действия и т. д. значений многозначного слова в контексте Выяснение сочетательной способности знаменательных частей речи Рассмотрение словосочетания как структурного элемента предложения Выявление текстообразующей роли слов разных частей речи Определение свойств, структуры, семантики предложения. Синтаксическая синонимия �Содержание В таблицу можно включить и текстологический уровень языка. Обучение пониманию чужого и построению своего текста невозможно осуществить вне логики когнитивно-семантического направления (предложенного нами в качестве ведущего). Целостность восприятия возникает в результате постоянного опознавания смысловых составляющих каждого уровня и обсуждения новых нюансов, возникающих при их сочетании и пересечении. Продуктивным и интересным в этом плане нам представляется метод моделирования текста, предложенный Ю.В. Букаревой. Автор предлагает полезную и понятную для детей аналогию для понимания сути текста как единицы языка и речи: «Для знакомства обучающихся с текстом как единицей, особого рода эффективной, является опора на его аналогию со словом как единицей лексической системы языка. Как слово представляет собой нечто целое, состоящее из элементов (морфем, фонем), так и текст – это целостная единица, хотя и членимая на составляющие его предложения и слова. И потому как слово нельзя определять через морфемы или фонемы (то есть, зная, что слова состоят из данных элементов, мы, однако, не определяем слово как группу фонем (звуков), объединённых по смыслу), так и текст нецелесообразно определять через предложения, хотя они являются, несомненно, одним из его составляющих. То есть текст – это единица языка и речи, обладающая связностью и цельностью, состоящая из названия и ряда особых единиц (сложного синтаксического целого) и служащая для достижения целей общения в условиях речевой ситуации». [Букарева, 2013]. Аналогия со словом может использоваться также для объяснения обучающимся понятия «смысл» применительно к тексту. Ученики довольно быстро отвечают на вопрос, что является главным в слове, что отличает одно слово от другого со стороны его содержания. Естественно, это его лексическое значение. Данное понятие, несмотря на свою достаточную абстрактность, хорошо усваивается школьниками. Поэтому объяснение понятия «смысл текста» через его сопоставление с понятием «лексическое значение слова» является весьма продуктивным. Так же, как и в слове, значение которого хотя и зависит от составляющих его компонентов (мы не можем изменить ни одного из них, не изменив значения слова, если не лексического, то грамматического), но напрямую не выводится из них, а определяется законами словообразования и формообразования. В тексте смысл не является прямым следствием соединения в нём слов и предложений. На формирование смысла текста влияют особые факторы как сугубо лингвистические, так и экстралингвистические, – это факторы текстообразования, определяемые основными свойствами текста, его связностью и цельностью. И так же, как значение слова скорее складывается из морфем, то есть из более крупных составляющих его единиц, чем из фонем, так и смысл текста складывается, в первую очередь, не из предложений или слов, а из сложных синтаксических целых (в учебнике под редакцией М.М. Разумовской и П.А. Леканта данное понятие заменено понятием «абзац»). Рассмотрим весьма продуктивное для приобретения опыта в способах развития авторской мысли в тексте и роли в этом процессе лексического повтора упражнение. Обучающимся предлагаются различные варианты развёртывания темы текста: А. В доме жило много старых вещей. Да, именно жило, и жизнь эта была довольно интересна. Б. В доме жило много старых вещей. Старых не в том смысле, что не нужных, а в том, что появились они давно и заняли своё заслуженное место. В. В доме жило много старых вещей. Да и дом был не новый. Задания к данному упражнению: 1) обратите внимание на то, как лексический повтор влияет на ход развития содержания текста; 2) продолжите каждый из этих вариантов и проанализируйте изменение коммуникативной установки речи; �Содержание 3) сравните свой вариант развития содержания с текстом К.Г. Паустовского и проследите авторское развитие темы: «В доме жило много старых вещей. Когда-то давно эти вещи были нужны обитателям дома, а сейчас они пылились и рассыхались на чердаке. Как-то на чердаке мы нашли чёрную шкатулку. На крышке её медными буквами была выложена английская надпись: «Сделал мастер Гальвестон». Шкатулку принесли в комнаты, осторожно вытерли с неё пыль и открыли крышку. Внутри были медные валики с тонкими шипами. Около каждого валика сидела на бронзовом рычажке медная стрекоза, бабочка или жук. Это была музыкальная шкатулка. Мы завели её, но она не играла. Напрасно мы нажимали на спинки жуков, мух, стрекоз – шкатулка была испорчена. Шкатулку поставили на стол, рядом с цветком герани, и, в конце концов, забыли о ней». В процессе работы обучающиеся наблюдают за ходом развития мысли автора текста, анализируют способы развития содержания на основе тема-рематического моделирования данного текста, выделяют языковые средства выражения смысла текста, определяют использованные автором в ходе развития темы типы речи. Рассмотрим и поясним суть базовых методических точек при подготовке урока. 1. Ещё раз подчеркнём важность правильного подбора стартового задания при входе в изучаемый раздел языка. Мы приводим примеры таких упражнений в пособии. Стартовое задание представляет панораму дальнейших наблюдений и исследований в рамках тематического плана работы, оно даёт возможности: • увидеть системность и целостность языковых явлений в едином пространстве текста; • увидеть и назвать основные понятия раздела; • увидеть слово в работе в условиях ближнего и дальнего контекстов; • увидеть возможности и закономерности комбинирования слов в рамках словосочетания, предложения, текста; • увидеть возможности и закономерности разного типа отношений между словами, устойчивыми словосочетаниями, синтаксическими конструкциями: синонимии, антонимии, омонимии, метонимии (вхождение частного в общее); • увидеть возможности и закономерности участия морфемы, формы слова, а также контекста в определении лексического значения слова; • извлекать лингвистическую и экстралингвистическую информацию; • наблюдать «закон динамики значений», описанный Л.С. Выготским; • вступить в «языковой» рефлексивный диалог. 2. Итоговое задание по теме, разделу устроено аналогично, оно тоже объёмное, захватывает все возможности темы, включает ресурсы языковой догадки и содержит «намёк» на учебную перспективу. И каждый раз должна быть активной линия соединения элементов языка в целое. 3. Главная цель должна постоянно присутствовать в мыслях и действиях учителя: сформировать �Содержание внутреннее представление и внешнюю лингвистическую атрибутику о языке как системном, живом, развивающемся явлении, связанном с человеком и его жизнью (быт, история, культура, отношения, мышление…). Эта цель постоянно имеется в виду при выполнении всех тренировочных упражнений, особенно при наблюдении и обсуждении вариантов выполненной работы. 4. При подготовке к уроку важно сделать точный, развёрнутый методический комментарий, в котором нужно указать: а) способы организации наблюдений над материалом – в известном и новом формате; б) задания к тексту (перечень учебных действий и способов их выполнения – индивидуально/ коллективно, устно/письменно, под диктовку / с раздаточного листа, с обсуждением / с самопроверкой); в) выход на системное обобщение (теория языка); г) набор дидактического материала, способы использования доски, интернет-ресурсов. �Содержание 2.3. Варианты текстовых тренингов по развитию различных компонентов языковой способности учеников Текстовыми тренингами назовём все виды работ, выполняемые с текстами в обучающем режиме, с целью развития мышления на базе целостного восприятия текста. Диктант, при всей стандартности этого учебного действия, можно считать одной из первичных форм обучения культуре целостного восприятия и воспроизведения текстов малого объёма. Подбор текста важен для любого вида учебной деятельности, в том числе и для диктанта. Полнота восприятия текста влияет на качество работы и на общую деятельностную установку. Поэтому эффективным оказывается использование одного текста в разных режимах работы, особенно в случаях устойчивой неграмотности. Для получения опыта языкового взаимодействия с разными типами текстов желательно предлагать разножанровые тексты. Аудиальному дословному диктанту могут предшествовать несколько видов учебных действий с текстом. 1. Имитация. Задание состоит в проверке слухо-произносительных навыков, заключается в повторении фраз из одного-трёх предложений вслед за диктором. Длина повторяемой фразы увеличивается постепенно. Упражняется способность концентрировать слуховое внимание в сочетании с пониманием смысла сказанного, развиваются регистры интонирования. Для данного тренинга предпочтительны на первом этапе поэтические тексты. Имитационно воспринятые на одном уроке, эти же фрагменты текста могут быть взяты в работу через некоторое время в режиме свободного диктанта, изложения или клоуз-теста. 2. Самодиктант. Вид зрительного письма, при котором текст воспринимается зрительно, иногда подвергается анализу, запоминается, затем записывается по памяти и проверяется самим учащимся по ключу (первоначальному тексту). Это могут быть фрагменты поэтических и прозаических произведений, изучаемых на уроках литературы. Или информационно однородные фрагменты из учебных книг по другим школьным предметам. Это могут быть также фрагменты научно-популярных статей, словарных статей, аннотаций, писем, дневниковых записей. 3. Копитест (визуальный диктант). Тестовое задание, в котором требуется восстановить опущенные предложения или их части, опираясь на однократное зрительное восприятие текста, который был предъявлен сначала без пропущенных сегментов. Возможны варианты в порядке работы: а) на 1-ом этапе, перед чтением текста учениками, можно предупредить о характере возможных пропусков (допустим, будут пропущены все причастные обороты), и тогда учащиеся при чтении полного исходного текста будут обращать специальное внимание на эти места в тексте; б) не указывать на характер пропусков в деформированном тексте, просто предупредить о возможных пропусках частей текста в следующем этапе работы с этим текстом. Во втором варианте проведения копитеста интересно и полезно для учителя затем спросить учеников, кто какую часть старался запомнить получше и почему. Копитекст нередко подготавливают по результатам письменного задания, выявившего у учащихся те или иные языковые и речевые ошибки. 4. Выборочное списывание. Ученикам предлагается выбрасывать из списываемого текста некоторые предложения, которые не влияют на главную мысль текста. При подготовке к списыванию школьники читают текст и анализируют, какие из предложений можно легко убрать. Списывают предложения, выражающие главную мысль текста, т. е. проводят ту же самую работу, что во время свободного диктанта, только текст находится у учащихся перед глазами, и работать с ним гораздо проще, чем при восприятии на слух. 5. Делимитация (восстановление границ) текста может производиться в пределах разных языковых �Содержание уровней: на уровне абзаца, на уровне предложения, на уровне слова. 6. Свободный диктант или фразовое письмо. Автором этого типа задания является методист 19 века Всеволод Александрович Флёров. Он был прогрессивным деятелем народного образования в России, подготовил программы по русскому языку и методике его преподавания для учительских семинарий. Так называемую «свободную диктовку» В.А. Флёров считал «диктовкой не слов, а мыслей» [Флёров]. Предполагается, что ученик, слушая текст, предназначенный для письма, учится его воспринимать, понимать заключённую в нём мысль и передавать эту мысль адекватными языковыми средствами. Свободный диктант учитель читает по смысловым частям, начиная тренировку с небольших фраз, постепенно увеличивая объём озвученного текста. Динамика увеличения объёма подбирается учителем для каждого класса или группы учеников индивидуально, фиксируется и обсуждается с учениками. Систематическое проведение свободных диктантов вырабатывает у школьников важное в жизни умение – отбирать в процессе прослушивания основное, отсеивать второстепенное. Употребление различных по жанру и стилю текстов свободных диктантов позволяет связать эту работу с обучением созданию собственных текстов [Ладыженская]. 7. Озаглавливание текста с обсуждением полученных на уроке вариантов заголовков тренирует и развивает два важных качества языковой способности – навык вычленения на фоне информационной избыточности смысловой доминанты, а также навык сжатия текста без смысловых потерь. Этот тренинг можно проводить с любым текстом, предъявляемым для учебного действия, и получать полезные сведения об индивидуальном восприятии текста практически каждым учеником [Киркинская]. 8. Актуализирующие задания тестового типа: А. Клоуз-тест (cloze образовано У.Л. Тэйлором от англ, closure размыкание, смыкание). Тест, при выполнении которого необходимо восстановить недостающие элементы текста, к примеру, каждое третье слово, используя механизм вероятностного прогнозирования. В клоуз-тесте допускается либо фиксированный пропуск слов, либо целенаправленная выборка (fixedratio method); в других случаях может использоваться нефиксированный пропуск слов (variable-ratio method), когда пропуск осуществляется в зависимости не от порядкового номера слова, а от выбранного критерия (опускаются слова с наибольшей информационной нагрузкой, или знаменательные, или служебные – случайная выборка). При оценивании засчитываются в качестве правильных ответов либо точно восстановленные слова, либо близкие, удовлетворяющие контексту. В клоуз-тексте используются разные типы ответов: свободно конструируемый (испытуемый самостоятельно подбирает контекстуально подходящие слова) и заданный (из предложенных в списке вариантов). Обсуждение вариантов заполнения пропусков в тексте, с учётом авторского варианта исходного текста, также имеет образовательный эффект. Созданное в учебной коммуникации вариативное поле замен помогает каждому ученику, во-первых, яснее увидеть «плюсы и минусы» своего варианта, во-вторых, приобрести опыт рассматривания частных элементов текста по отношению к целому. И тогда целостность текста, как текстообразующее понятие, переходит в восприятии ученика из разряда декларируемых учителем в разряд личных инструментальных средств. Б. Микс-тесты. Ученикам раздаются фрагменты изучаемого текста, в которых переставлены местами предложения, слова или слова и предложения. Необходимо найти перестановки и восстановить правильный порядок. Желательно организовать работу также в индивидуально-деятельностном режиме, с обсуждением полученных вариантов. В. Чейндж-тесты. Авторские элементы текста (абзацы, предложения, слова) заменяются «чужими», �Содержание близкими по смыслу. Ученики должны почувствовать подмену и восстановить исходные элементы. Результаты обсуждаются на уроке. Г. Симпл-тесты. Ученикам предлагается упростить текст до набора ключевых слов, грамматических основ или предложений. Процедура их отбора связана с развитием способности сжимать текст до ядерных элементов. Параллельно идёт формирование прогностического компонента языковой способности, когда ученик учится ощущать потенциальную возможность обратного действия – развёртывания текста из набора его элементов. Озаглавливание учебных текстов становится не проходящим заданием, а смысловым. 9. Дословный обучающий диктант проверяет уровень понимания при аудировании, а также навыки правописания. В ходе диктанта ученикам до трёх раз предъявляется текст в нормальном темпе громкого чтения. В процессе второго предъявления текста в определённых местах делаются паузы, во время которых ученик записывает услышанные части текста (обычно от 7–12 до 20–22 слов). Во время третьего предъявления паузы делаются в два раза короче и служат для проверки записи и исправления неточностей и ошибок. Дословные обучающие диктанты могут проводиться в сочетании разных форматов знакомства с исходным текстом и режимов сверки. Возможные различия в режимах диктовок: • чисто аудиальная диктовка; • диктовка после визуального прочтения текста; • диктовка после виртуальной проверки. Возможные различия в режимах проверки: • виртуальная проверка; • реальная сверка с образцом; • проверка-аннотация. Неосвоенной в школьной практике является виртуальная проверка. «Термином «виртуальная проверка» мы обозначаем задание проверить свой написанный текст, сличая его с образцом, но не имея перед глазами этот ранее написанный тобой текст (нужно помнить написанное тобой!), а затем внести результаты проверки, исправив найденные ошибки уже без текста-образца. Доведённый до уровня устойчивых навыков, этот тип деятельности достаточно эффективен для формирования орфографической памяти» [Голев, 2001]. Коллекцию подобных упражнений и текстов к ним можно пополнять, используя личный опыт и опыт методистов-классиков. В школьной практике методика развития речи и методика формирования орфографических навыков существуют пока практически автономно. Хотя изучение истории научнометодических исследований и педагогического опыта (работы К. Д. Ушинского, И. Ф. Бунакова, В. П. Вахтерова, В. А. Флёрова, Н. С. Рождественского, М. В. Ушакова) убеждает: лишь тот добивается прочного и осознанного усвоения орфографии, кто ставит обучение орфографии в тесную связь с развитием мышления и речи. В этом случае процесс формирования орфографических умений и навыков становится коммуникативно обусловленным, коммуникативно значимым. Таким образом, можно сказать, что любой вид учебной деятельности с текстом, как целым языковым высказыванием, позволяет развивать ядро языковой способности. Этим ядром является «не рационально-логическое отношение к речи и тексту, а собственно языковое чувство, то самое языковое чувство, которое недооценивается школьной методикой, не выделяющей её в качестве специального объекта и не располагающей системой её развития» [Голев, 2009, с. 383]. �Содержание Вопросы и задания для самостоятельной работы 1. Прочитайте, законспектируйте и обсудите на занятии 7-ю главу «Мысль и слово» из книги Л. С. Выготского «Мышление и речь». 2. Подберите текст для определённого возраста и проведите тема-рематическое моделирование его. 3. Создайте коллекцию текстов для проведения названных типов текстовых тренингов. �Содержание 3. Как сделать урок коммуникативно значимым для ученика? 3.1. Коммуникативные стратегии, отражающие отношения «своё-чужое» 3.2. Параметры анализа учебной коммуникации Вопросы и задания для самостоятельной работы �Содержание 3.1. Коммуникативные стратегии, отражающие отношения «своёчужое» Коммуникативно значимым урок становится в случае заинтересованности в общении. Обратимся ещё раз к позиции В.И. Тюпы: «Обучающим эффектом обладает не только «вертикальное» взаимодействие учащегося с учителем, но и «горизонтальные» взаимодействия учащихся между собой (в этом состоит существенное преимущество обучения в классе перед индивидуальным обучением). Но эти взаимодействия должны быть эффективно организованы. Направляемое учителем общение на тему урока приобретает конвергентный характер, если предполагает равноправие человеческих сознаний перед лицом Истины и Справедливости, Добра и Красоты… Для этого на смену уроку-ритуалу должен прийти урок, являющийся коммуникативным событием для всех его участников – ученика, учителя и соученика. Иначе говоря, на смену информированию и управлению процессом усвоения информации должны прийти общение (неформальная коммуникация) и организация учителем эффективного контекста понимания». В семиотических исследованиях показано, что оппозиция своё / чужое является одной из древнейших. Она формируется и развивается во всех основных сферах человеческой деятельности. Ниже (подразделы 3.1, 3.2) публикуем фрагмент монографии Н.В. Максимовой1. Образовательные практики, строящиеся в диалогическом ключе, предполагают, что понимание в учебной ситуации разворачивается на шаге перехода от одной точки зрения (позиции) к другой. Так, применительно к Школе понимания (коммуникативная дидактика) пространство учебной коммуникации можно представить в виде следующей ключевой (и потому очень обобщённой) модели. Она функциональна и для других типов учебного диалога, где предметом взаимодействия являются разные смысловые позиции участников диалога по отношению к обсуждаемому предметному полю. Обобщённая схема учебной коммуникации Коммуникативное пространство характеризуется типом развёртывающихся отношений коммуникантов – типом тех речевых жанров и коммуникативных стратегий, которые представляют интенциональную устремлённость участников общения и реальное соотношение их позиций в коммуникативном взаимодействии. Вопрос о характеристике типа коммуникативного пространства влечёт за собой поиск единиц измерения последнего. 1 Максимова Н. В. Понимание в диалоге: текстовые модели ментатива. Новосибирск : Изд-во НИПКиПРО, 2012. С. 172–175. �Содержание На основе чего и с помощью чего можно установить, что учебный диалог реально складывается, что учащиеся пошагово осваивают коммуникативную компетенцию; каков репертуар речевых жанров и коммуникативных стратегий, освоенных учителем и учеником, – эти и подобные вопросы составляют специфику разработки проблем, связанных с описанием коммуникативного пространства. Получая ответ на эти вопросы, педагог получает в руки инструментарий анализа коммуникативного пространства урока, возможность осознанного, профессионального, методически зрелого управления процессами коммуникации, формирования коммуникативных способностей учащихся. Коммуникативное пространство урока разворачивается на основе устанавливающихся предметносодержательных позиций участников учебного диалога. Соотношение этих позиций реализуется в речевых жанрах – репликах учащихся, актуализирующих взаимопереходы внутренней – внешней речи, значения – смысла. Специфические для данного коммуникативного пространства речевые жанры характеризуются модальностью понимания1 и выполнением функции смыслопорождения. В плане коммуникативной составляющей урока выделяются два важнейших речевых жанра, свидетельствующих о том, что складывается некая культурная норма коммуникации, разворачиваются её базовые процессы. Это жанр двунаправленной реплики и жанр метаречевой реплики. Двунаправленная реплика (понимание которой восходит к «двунаправленному слову» М.М. Бахтина) представляет собой такую вербальную структуру, которая имеет двойную референцию. С одной стороны, устанавливается соотнесённость с предметным смыслом учебного диалога (с темой, предметом обсуждения); с другой стороны – соотнесённость с какой-либо другой репликой (коммуникативной позицией, представленной одной из предшествующих авторских реплик). Одновременность двух референций (развитие собственно предмета обсуждения и отношение к чужой точке зрения) – ключевой признак двунаправленной реплики как ядра диалогического взаимодействия. Умение строить такую реплику лежит в области коммуникативной компетенции и составляет её достаточно продвинутый уровень. Появление на уроке двунаправленных реплик, инициируемых учителем, а тем более учащимися, – знак развитого коммуникативного пространства, наличия процессов диалога. Двунаправленная реплика лежит в основе различных диалогических коммуникативных стратегий, которые и есть типизированные разновидности двунаправленного слова. Метаречевая реплика представляет собой такое высказывание, которое в качестве своей референции имеет собственно коммуникативные процессы, происходящие в учебном диалоге. Такая реплика минимально продвигает предметный смысл, минимально соотносится с развитием содержательной стороны предмета (или соотносится опосредованно). Основная функция метаречевой реплики – функция управления процессами коммуникации: прояснение коммуникативной позиции (Так ты что, возражаешь или, наоборот, приводишь аргументы?); толкование позиций (Как я понимаю, ты говоришь вот о чём:…; или: Поясни, что ты имеешь в виду, когда говоришь…); соотнесение коммуникативных позиций (Получается, что Х. понимает это как…, а У. высказывает иное понимание…); оценка коммуникативных действий и под. Метаречевая реплика возможна тогда, когда участники диалога способны занять по отношению к процессам коммуникации метапозицию, характеризующуюся содержательным участием в коммуникации, с одной стороны, и параллельной рефлексией её формы, структуры, отстранением и занятием по отношению к коммуникативному пространству внешней позиции – с другой. 1 Речевые жанры различаются по отношению к четырём основным компонентам познавательного процесса – знанию, мнению, убеждению и пониманию. Ядерной характеристикой коммуникативного пространства является развёртывание процессов понимания (прим. автора). �Содержание Появление метаречевой реплики на уроке – свидетельство развитости коммуникативных процессов. Как показывают наблюдения, метаречевыми репликами, несмотря на их сложность, учащиеся овладевают уже к концу 1–2 классов – при условии, что работа с формой коммуникации учителем выводится в отдельную образовательную задачу и последовательно организуется на протяжении всего процесса обучения. Анализ педагогического опыта учителей показывает также, что в классе регулярно выделяются дети, имеющие выраженную склонность к осуществлению коммуникативных действий из метапозиции. По отношению к двунаправленным репликам как наиболее общему понятию можно говорить о том, что учащиеся склонны занимать при осуществлении двунаправленного слова ту или иную коммуникативную позицию, связанную с типом коммуникативной стратегии (отрицания, применения, развития и др.). Несмотря на то, что учащиеся естественнее овладевают предпочитаемым ими типом коммуникативной стратегии, образовательная задача состоит в наращивании репертуара диалогического взаимодействия, укоренении всех базовых коммуникативных стратегий. А одна из дальнейших исследовательских задач может состоять в изучении соотнесённости типа предпочитаемого коммуникативного поведения ребёнка и других параметров его общего развития. В качестве единиц измерения коммуникативного пространства выступают коммуникативные стратегии (КС) – определённые типы действий участников общения по достижению понимания в учебном диалоге. В учебном диалоге коммуникативную стратегию можно определить в том же ключе, что и выше, – как значимую для речевого поведения соотнесённость типа позиции в коммуникации и соответствующего способа выражения этой позиции при помощи слова (или другого знака). �Содержание 3.2. Параметры анализа учебной коммуникации Перечислим важные для анализа коммуникативного пространства урока коммуникативные стратегии: КС-развитие, КС-толкование, КС-переоформление, КС-отрицание, КС-применение, КС-оценивание, КС-переопределение, КС-комментирование. Эти КС, выделенные на широком текстовом материале, образуют систему, продуктивность применения которой обнаруживается по отношению к самым широким сферам речепроизводства. За текстовыми формами как некими следами диалогического взаимодействия обнаруживаются типизированные коммуникативные позиции: чужое может отрицаться, или напротив – применяться, чужое может подвергаться толкованию или переоформляться, чужое может получать развитие. Типология, состоящая из 8 наиболее значимых стратегий, включает 5 базовых КС (отрицание, применение, толкование, переоформление, развитие) и 3 пограничных (оценивание, комментирование, переопределение). По сути, речь идёт об универсальных стратегиях культуры, имеющих корни и традиции в самых разных сферах диалогического взаимодействия. Модели КС описывают то, как строит общение говорящий, когда обращается к чужой точке зрения, когда вступает в отношения с чужой позицией. Уточним, что под КС в данном случае понимается значимая для речевого поведения говорящего соотнесённость типа коммуникативной позиции – по отношению к чужому / другому и способа выражения этой позиции. Такое понимание исходит из представления о типах коммуникативных стратегий чужой речи как о моделях диалогического взаимодействия, отражающих фрагмент языковой картины мира говорящего, связанный с его ценностными приоритетами в выборе способов общения с Другим. При этом понятие диалога связано с основополагающими смыслами «понимания» (возникновения новой информации, порождения нового понимания в самом предметном поле общения) и «взаимопонимания» (возникновения новой общности, достижения субъектами общения нового качества понимания друг друга). Две эти стороны диалога составляют его исходный момент и являются его сверхзадачей. КС-развитие. Её отличительной особенностью является наличие двух различных точек зрения и их согласование, синтезирование. КС-развитие строится в соответствии с нормой бахтинского «диалога согласия» как приоритетного способа взаимодействия (в основе своей содержащего триаду «тезис – антитезис – синтез»). КС-толкование. Исходное (чужое) высказывание (тезис) характеризуется затемнённостью своего смыслового плана (что хочет сказать говорящий? что он имеет в виду? – эти и подобные вопросы составляют первичную реакцию на непонятный смысл). Другим условием осуществления КСтолкование является актуальность, ценностная значимость этого затемнённого участка смысла для воспринимающих. Последующие высказывания истолковывают возникший затемнённый смысл, стремясь к содержательному тождеству исходного тезиса и тезиса-толкования. КС-переоформление. Здесь процесс смыслообразования связан с поиском новой – более выразительной, точной, неординарной формы для выражения исходного смысла (интенция коммуникантов – «довыразить» возникший смысл). Кульминацию переоформления составляет, как правило, нестандартная, оригинальная языковая форма, стремящаяся к афористичной форме. КС-отрицание. В её структуре значимы как минимум три компонента: исходный (чужой) тезис, разворачиваемый по отношению к нему антитезис (интенционально направленный на исключение правомерности чужой позиции) и аргументация к антитезису. КС-применение. При её осуществлении исходное высказывание выражает нечто общее, целое (носит синтезирующий характер), применяемое к новому (частному) случаю. Так, общее утверждение о чём- �Содержание либо, часто может подтверждаться новым тезисом, содержащим какой-либо новый факт или логический довод; переход к этому тезису и составляет процесс применения. КС-оценивание. По отношению к чужому тезису высказывается оценка, положительная или отрицательная. КС-переопределение. Уже известное или же только что полученное понятие (представление) переопределяется – определяется заново, строится на основе новых различительных признаков, обосновывается с иных позиций. КС-комментирование. Здесь, в отличие от стратегии толкования, предметом обсуждения становится какой-либо частный (по отношению к ядру обсуждаемых тезисов), второстепенный (относительно главного смысла) компонент исходного высказывания, подвергающийся комментарию (например, метаречевому, фактологическому или др. комментарию). Каждая из восьми стратегий может быть представлена вариативно – с доминированием форм вопроса, побуждения (императива) или повествовательной формы. Кроме того, осуществление стратегий сопровождается специфическим для каждой из них набором тактик (логико-смысловых вариантов реализации КС), а также образованием переходных, контаминированных форм. Среди базовых КС этой сверхзадаче диалога соответствует КС-развитие; антитеза стратегий развития и отрицания составляет основу интенционально-смысловой типизированности КС как моделей диалогического взаимодействия (подробнее см. указанную выше работу). Дискуссия и диалог согласия – два полюса диалогического взаимодействия. Дискуссия соотносится с доминированием стратегии отрицания. Диалог согласия – с доминантой стратегии развития. Модели выделенных стратегий проецируются на соответствующие культурные феномены: стратегия отрицания – в пределе установка на уничтожение чужой позиции – феномен войны, конфликта, противостояния; стратегия развития – установка на взаимодополняемость своего и чужого и их взаимную недостаточность – феномен сотрудничества, конвергентного сознания, поиска компромиссов, достижения консенсуса. Наложение «сетки КС» на коммуникативное пространство урока (а также на индивидуальное речевое поведение того или иного участника учебного диалога) может выполнять диагностическую функцию. Параметрами диагностирования при построении стенограммы урока являются следующие: 1) наличие / отсутствие в коммуникативном пространстве урока КС понимания как таковых; 2) какие КС являются на данном этапе доминантными; 3) их принадлежность к базовым / периферийным КС; 4) параметр динамики, заключающийся в фиксации и сравнении разновременных этапов обучения. Последний параметр нужно выделить особо, поскольку именно с ним связано отслеживание постепенного наращивания и укоренения базовых КС и поэтапного формирования коммуникативной компетенции учащихся. �Содержание Вопросы и задания для самостоятельной работы 1. Выполните наложение «сетки КС» на стенограмму своего урока. Опишите результаты. 2. Пронаблюдайте и опишите коммуникативное пространство практического занятия по методике. 3. Прочитайте и законспектируйте работу М. А. Бочарниковой компетенция” и его становление в научной среде». «Понятие “коммуникативная �Содержание 4. Речевая база для освоения языковой системы 4.1. Уровни готовности к речевой деятельности 4.2. Общая характеристика упражнений при изучении разделов языка Вопросы и задания для самостоятельной работы �Содержание 4.1. Уровни готовности к речевой деятельности Уровни усвоения языка не развиваются линейно, отдельно друг от друга, они вложены один в другой, они как бы перетекают один в другой в процессе взросления ребёнка. Они отражают процесс восприятия языка растущим сознанием, вершиной которого является развитая языковая рефлексия и языковая интуиция. Рассмотрим кратко уровни развитости языковой личности в плане адекватности речевых поступков по Г. И. Богину [Богин]. Уровни развитости языковой личности выделяются на основе системы социальных оценок речевой деятельности: I уровень правильности } 5–6 класс II уровень интериоризации } 5–6 класс III уровень насыщенности } 7–8 класс IV уровень адекватного выбора }7–8 класс V уровень адекватного синтеза} 9–11 класс. Распределение сформированности уровней по классам сделано нами условно, для общей ориентировки учителя. При выделении уровня Г.И. Богин указывает типичные «минусы» – нарушения уровня, дающие основания для критики речевого поступка. Цель учителя – наблюдать и помогать переводить «минусы» в «плюсы» в режиме естественного общения. Уровень правильности предполагает овладение высокочастотными средствами прямой номинации. Критикуется в быту по формуле «Он русского языка не знает». Например, иностранец делает ошибку: «Я буду прыгнуть сейчас». Критикуя подобные ошибки, субъект социальной оценки речи исходит из того, что «точка отсчёта всякой оценки речи – так или иначе осознаваемая говорящим правильность, более или менее полно и верно понимаемая языковая норма». Уровень интериоризации критикуется в быту по формуле «Он ещё говорить как следует не научился». Некто говорит: «Мы (пауза) товарищи (пауза) соревнуемся (пауза) это (ангерофразия) по линии озеленения (пауза, ангерофразия) с городом Кустанай». В этих случаях недостатком, «минусом» является замедление в передаче информации, т. е. «плохая скорость», связанная, в конечном счёте, с недостаточно интериоризованным внутренним планом речевого поступка. Поэтому речевой поступок нерационально, недостаточно целесообразно протекает во времени. Уровень насыщенности предполагает широкое использование «богатства языка», лексикограмматическое многознание. Критика заключается в том, чтобы люди широко использовали «богатство языка». Уровень адекватного выбора содержит предметом оценки не целый текст, а одно предложение. Критикуется в быту по формуле «Он не те слова говорит». Некто, производя предложение, выбирает единицы речевой цепи, но выбор неадекватен: «Не знаю, что вам на это сообщить». Уровень адекватного синтеза предполагает оценку производства и воспроизводства целого текста со всем сложнейшим комплексом присущих ему а) средств коммуникации предметного содержания и б) средств выражения духовного (высшего) содержания личности самого коммуниканта. Критикуется в быту по формуле «Говорит он то, да получается что-то не то». Происходит разговор: «Кладовщиком? Что же, это можно, нам кладовщик нужен... О! А у вас вот �Содержание тут в трудкнижке... Работали бригадиром... раньше. Это хорошо...» – «Да, раньше!.. Моя звезда закатилась». Второй собеседник делает упущение, производя предложение «Моя звезда закатилась». Но в пределах предложения как такового нет никакого упущения: обеспечены и правильность, и интериоризация, и насыщенность. Неадекватность речевого поступка раскрывается лишь в контексте всего диалога. Точнее, неадекватность заключается в том, что один из собеседников разрушает важный параметр всего диалога – его «тональность», заданную первым собеседником и не усвоенную вторым. Мы имеем здесь дело с нарушением адекватности в тексте, принципиально большем, чем предложение. Учителю следует знать, что все «минусы» / недостатки (они же и «плюсы» / достижения) речевых поступков поддаются распределению по названным пяти уровням. Представление об уровнях развитости языковой личности позволяет построить перечень её готовностей к речевой деятельности. �Содержание 4.2. Общая характеристика упражнений при изучении разделов языка Изучение разделов науки о языке – фонетики, лексики, фразеологии, морфемики, словообразования, морфологии, синтаксиса – предполагает познание основных свойств изучаемых единиц языка в каждом разделе и функционирование их в речи. Действия с языковыми – фонетическими, лексическими, фразеологическими, морфемными, словообразовательными, морфологическими, синтаксическими – единицами носят интеллектуальномыслительный характер. При этом учащиеся оперируют их существенными признаками, позволяющими отличать одни единицы от других. Для применения полученных знаний на практике существенное значение имеет работа с текстами, поэтому мы вводим тексты для освоения раздела на всех этапах – введение (старт), тренировка, диагностика усвоения. Формируются языковые умения, которые заключаются в оперировании языковым материалом не только в учебных целях, но и помогают укрепиться в понимании себя и окружающего мира людей, природы, вещей. Перечислим в общем виде основные учебно-языковые умения по отдельным разделам науки о языке, вырабатываемые с помощью упражнений. Фонетические упражнения формируют ряд фонетических умений, развивают слух, воспитывают чувство ритма: • различение звуков в словах; • установление смыслоразличительной роли звуков (фонем): лук и люк; миновать и линовать; лимон и лиман; • деление слова на слоги: произнесите слова по слогам, прохлопайте, простукайте количество слогов; запишите слова, деля их дефисом на слоги; • постановка ударения в словах: произнесите слово, выделяя в нем голосом ударный слог; при списывании поставьте ударения в словах; запишите слова под диктовку, расставляя в них ударения; измените слово так, чтобы ударение перешло на другой слог (например, единственное число лиса – множественное число …); подберите к словам с безударной приставкой слова с той же приставкой, но ударной; подберите однокоренные слова с ударными и безударными корнями; • группировка слов с определёнными звуками: спишите, распределяя слова следующим образом: в один столбик – с ударным корнем (суффиксом и т. д.), а в другой – с безударным; в один столбик запишите слова с твердыми согласными на конце слова, а в другой – с мягкими и т. д.; • определение звукового состава слова: произнесите звуки в данных словах; произведите фонетический разбор слова. Фонетико-графические упражнения служат для обучения детей различению звуков и букв, знакомят со значением букв в древней русской азбуке. Для этой цели используются, например, такие упражнения: • обозначьте звуки (в произносимом/написанном слове) буквами, используя транскрипцию; • определите звуковое значение выделенных букв; • расположите услышанные/написанные слова по алфавиту; �Содержание • подчеркните буквы, не совпадающие со звуками; обозначающие один или несколько звуков; • научитесь писать славянские буквы кириллицы и называть их. Лексико-фразеологические упражнения способствуют не только обогащению словарного запаса учащихся, но и формируют их мировоззрение, поэтому при изучении лексики и фразеологии необходима работа со словарями, сопоставление известного значения слова с новым: • укажите (назовите, подчеркните), многозначные (диалектные, заимствованные и т. п.) слова, фразеологизмы; • подберите синонимы/антонимы к данному слову, фразеологизмы с близким значением; • найдите в толковом словаре диалектные (профессиональные и т. д.) слова, фразеологизмы; • определите значение, в котором употреблено выделенное в тексте слово; • составьте словарную статью слова (по контекстам его употребления); • составьте предложения с предложенным словом в указанном значении; • найдите лексическую (фразеологическую) ошибку в данном предложении. Морфемные упражнения развивают у учащихся умение определять структуру слова, значение русских морфем и служат основой для формирования орфографических умений и навыков: • найдите/укажите/подчеркните/выпишите слова, имеющие приставки и т. д. (или заданную структуру); • разберите слова по составу, обозначьте условными знаками части слова; • подберите слова с предложенными суффиксами и т. д. (или с заданной структурой); • выполните графический диктант (запись не слóва, а его схемы); • сгруппируйте слова по наличию в них разных приставок (суффиксов, окончаний и т. д.); • заполните таблицу, используя предложенные примеры; • определите, в каком из слов приставка (суффикс и т. д.) не выделяется. Словообразовательные упражнения развивают у школьников умение устанавливать структурносемантические связи между производным и производящим словами, определять способ образования слова, формируя подходы к естественно-смысловому восприятию слова и общей грамотности: • определите, от какого слова и с помощью чего образовано данное слово; • составьте цепочку однокоренных слов (в порядке их образования); • определите способ образования слова; • подберите однокоренные слова к данному слову. Морфологические упражнения помогают укрепиться в семантических и грамматических показателях частей речи, закрепляют знания, полученные детьми, по морфологии, и служат основой для формирования орфографических умений и навыков. С этой целью используются следующие упражнения: • опознание части речи, того или иного разряда этой части речи; �Содержание • подбор слов той или иной части речи, того или иного разряда части речи; • постановка слова в требуемую контекстом форму; • составление парадигмы слова; • разграничение омонимичных слов, относящихся к разным частям речи; • группировка слов по частям речи, их разрядам; • составление таблиц и заполнение готовых таблиц предложенными примерами; • полный или частичный морфологический разбор слова. Синтаксические упражнения готовят школьников к овладению пунктуацией, а также рядом коммуникативных умений. Направлены на отработку таких понятий, как словосочетание, предложение, сложное синтаксическое целое: • отграничение одних синтаксических структур от других; • определение структуры данной синтаксической единицы; • нахождение в предложениях тех или иных структурных частей; • составление схем предложений; • составление предложений по схемам; • составление предложений указанной структуры; • полный или частичный синтаксический разбор словосочетаний и предложений разных структур. �Содержание Вопросы и задания для самостоятельной работы 1. Составьте речевой портрет ученика, сокурсника, друга, члена семьи на основе наблюдения и описания уровней готовности к речевой деятельности по Г. И. Богину. 2. Подготовьте внеурочное занятие для 5–6 классов по древнерусской буквице. 3. Выберите понравившееся вам упражнение какого-либо типа из учебников 5–7 классов. Постройте цепочку учебных действий, приращивающую новое понимание какого-либо языкового явления. �Содержание 5. Языковые умения школьников 5–9 классов. Примеры стартовых, тренировочных и итоговых упражнений для их развития Для развития интеллекта и мышления в условиях избытка информации при обучении родному языку следует обратить внимание на когнитивно-семантическое направление. Современная когнитивная лингвистика изучает возникновение, освоение и использование языка в прямой связи с деятельностью человеческого сознания. Языковая способность признаётся частным случаем когнитивного навыка. Обратим внимание на следующий тезис: «Основу языкового умения составляют не абстрактные правила, с помощью которых можно было бы создавать различные построения из языкового материала, – но скорее сам этот материал как первичная данность, усваиваемая в конкретной форме и применительно к конкретным условиям употребления» [Копотев, с. 11]. Для когнитивно-семантического подхода важны две стороны в отношении к изучаемому языку: вопервых, язык как объект изучения в его формальных структурах, во-вторых, понимание смыслов, передаваемых средствами языка. Например, в учебнике русского языка для средней школы (научный редактор М.В. Панов) авторы обращают внимание на синонимические конструкции: Он скучал. – Ему было скучно. Он грустил. – Ему было грустно. – Ему взгрустнулось. Проанализировать сходное и различное в таких предложениях – значит материализовать в своём сознании формальные (грамматические) и смысловые (семантические) значения, учиться видеть разнообразие в способах выражения смыслов. Стартовое задание вводит в тему, аккумулирует языковой и учебный опыт ребёнка, содержит «точки удивления» (термин Школы Диалога культур В.С. Библера), перспективу нового взгляда на материал и призывает к новому действию. Серия тренировочных заданий направлена на различение языкового факта в разных учебных контекстах, на формирование рефлексивных языковых умений. При подборе этих упражнений и планировании работы с ними важно выстроить их последовательность в 4-х уровнях сложности: а) начальный, делаемый по образцу, б) средний, усложнённый, контекстный, в) трудный, различительнообобщающий содержит аналогичные закономерности на разных уровнях языка, г) творческое подражание, коллекционирование изучаемых языковых фактов. Контрольно-диагностическое задание позволяет выявить степень теоретического освоения материала, способность связывать языковые закономерности, а также использовать этот материал в собственной речевой деятельности. Итак, работу строим от ученика, предполагая наличие у него неотрефлексированного опыта владения языком. Логика проста: составляются списки умений по основным разделам языка, наличие которых будет отражать основные качества языковой подготовки носителя языка с 5 по 9 класс. К каждому языковому умению указываются предполагаемые типы упражнений по классам и даются примеры указанных трёх типов заданий. Начнём с обзора лексических умений, так как слово занимает краеугольное место и в системе языка, и в восприятии его носителя. 5.1. Лексические умения 5.2. Словообразовательные и морфематические умения �Содержание 5.3. Орфографические и морфематические умения 5.4. Фонематические и орфоэпические умения 5.5. Морфологические умения 5.6. Синтаксические умения 5.7. Общетекстовые умения Вопросы и задания для самостоятельной работы �Содержание 5.1. Лексические умения Таблица 2 Лексические умения в упражнениях Умения Типы упражнений Толковать лексические значения знакомых слов и Составление семантических мини-полей. фразеологизмов (см.обязательные тематические списки Задания на многозначность слов, полисемию Класс 5–6 по классам) Пользоваться толковым и этимологическим словарями, словарями-тезаурусами Пользоваться словарями синонимов, антонимов, иностранных слов, фразеологизмов Пользоваться словарём сочетаемости слов1 Толковать лексические значения незнакомых слов и фразеологизмов (см. список расширения активного словаря по классам) Различать исконно русские и заимствованные слова Различать слова-паронимы2 Текст с выделенными словами 5–6 Клоуз-тест; найти более нейтральное слово; расположить слова в порядке усиления признака; заменить фразеологизм, иностранное слово исконно русским и наоборот Правка текста с разного рода ошибками в лексической сочетаемости слов Определение лексических значений незнакомых слов в тексте 6–7 7–8 6–9 Толкование и замена слов. Определение стилистических несуразиц Правка неправильно употреблённого паронима; клоуз-тест с выбором ответа; составление словосочетаний Упражнения на определение лексических значений Различать слова-омографы слов в контексте Упражнения на различение разных Различать диалектизмы, арготизмы, профессионализмы и пользоваться ими (составить функциональных групп лексики из учебника М.В. Панова. Запись этих групп слов от родственников современный список) 6–7 Определять стилистическую окраску слов и переносные значения в разных типах контекстов (список текстовых ссылок) Согласовывать прилагательные и глаголы в прошедшем времени с заимствованными словами Клоуз-микс-тесты. Стилистически деформированные тексты 8–9 Упражнение на согласование форм слова, в том числе –восстановление грамматически деформированного текста 6–8 8–9 6–7 6–8 1 Словарь сочетаемости слов русского языка / под ред. П. Н. Денисова, В. В. Морковкина. 2-е изд., испр. и доп. М., 1978; 3-е изд., испр. М., 1983.; М., 2002. (Словарь является наиболее полным лексикографическим описанием сочетаемости слов в нашем языке и представляет собой типичный образец такого словарного издания. В нём собран и обобщён ценный материал о сочетаемости слов по всем трём видам синтаксической связи – согласованию, управлению и примыканию. В словаре около 2 500 словарных статей; в качестве заголовочного слова выступают имя существительное, имя прилагательное, глагол. К слову даются толкования его значений, краткая грамматическая характеристика.) 2 Вишнякова О. В. Словарь паронимов русского языка. М. : Рус. яз., 1984. �Содержание Построим цепочку упражнений для 5 класса. Стартовое задание в разделе «Лексика». Работая с текстом, определите разными способами лексическое значение слова родник: Места, где я родился, полны чудес. Небо там выше и синее, воздух прозрачнее, леса гуще и даже трава зеленее. Цветы на моей родине улыбаются мне навстречу, а вода в родниках кажется чище и слаще. Ключи бьют в моих родных местах повсюду и радостно встречают всех. Вода в источниках такая студёная, что лицо горит, когда плеснёшь ею. Нигде больше нет такой воды. Здесь её называют живой. Методический комментарий. Возможны сопряжённые наблюдения и обсуждения: 1) какие синонимы видите в тексте, опишите их прямое и переносное значение и скажите, как эти значения связаны с ключевым словом, какой общий смысл их объединяет; 2) понаблюдайте за смысловой ролью слов в сравнительной степени в тексте; можете ли восстановить их полную начальную форму? (Так мы делаем посыл в грамматику, её функционально-семантическую роль в тексте); 3) обсуждение эмоционального смысла антонимов для более точного восприятия текста; 4) какой смысл содержится для нас в словосочетании «живая вода»? 5) что изменится в тексте, если мы последнее предложение перестроим так: Нигде больше нет такой живой воды? После такого стартового задания появляется вектор для наблюдений за лексикой, её явлениями. Приведём примеры тренировочного упражнения на многозначность слова. Задание: В каком значении употребляются слова «яркий», «земля», «перейти»? I. 1. Яркий свет луны падал на верхушки деревьев. 2. При написании картины художник использовал яркие краски. 3. Яркий талант актёра приводил в восторг зрителей. II. 1. Земля движется вокруг солнца. 2. На корабле сразу заметили землю. 3. Жители села обработали землю. 4. Наши прадеды любили свою землю и защищали её. III. 1. Мальчик перешёл улицу. 2. Гости перешли в другую комнату. 3. Школьник перешёл в пятый класс. 4. Депутаты перешли ко второму вопросу. 5. Количество перешло в качество. Примеры тренировочных упражнений на синонимию слов. Задание 1. В каком ряду все слова являются синонимами? 1) журить, ругать, бранить; 2) опасаться, робеть, трусить; 3) возражать, протестовать, восклицать; 4) бродить, блуждать, слоняться. Задание 2. Какое прилагательное можно включить в данный ряд синонимов? Мышиный, дымчатый, стальной… 1) синий, 2) жёлтый, 3) зелёный, 4) серый Задание 3. Вставьте в текст наиболее подходящие слова из скобок. Даже в самый … (жаркий, горячий, жгучий, знойный) день, если приложишь к щеке листочек липы или берёзы, клёна или дуба, то почувствуешь, что он … (холодный, прохладный, студёный). А �Содержание почему? Оказывается, из-за испарения воды. Ведь листья дерева на две трети состоят из воды. Лист давно бы лопнул, если бы не …. (маленькие, крохотные, крошечные, малюсенькие, миниатюрные, микроскопические) отверстия, через которые вода … (испаряется, улетучивается, исчезает). Тренировочное задание на прямое и переносное значение слов [Панов, 2012, с. 46]. Объясните с помощью толкового словаря прямое или переносное значение слов: граница, источник, материал, жидкий. Составьте предложения с этими словами, употребив их в прямом и переносном значении. Задание 4. Расположите слова в порядке возрастания признака. – Исполинский, громадный, гигантский, огромный, большой. – Трепетать, трусить, робеть, страшиться, бояться, дрожать. Практически под каждое освоенное учебное действие можно предлагать детям самим подобрать примеры, и они охотно это делают. Тренировочное упражнение на различение профессионализмов [Панов, 2012, с. 40]. Найдите слова, относящиеся к профессионализмам. С помощью словаря объясните их значение. Армия, аллея, алиби, космос, комедия, клиент, лектор, лирика, лицензия, метеор, метастаз, механизм, навага, натуралист, оркестр, оркестровка, пафос, пепсин, платформа, плеоназм, пробойник, рекорд, ректор, рефлекс, репертуар, соплеменник, соплодие, специфика, танкер, текст, фраза, фронт, функция, циклон, циферблат, чемпион, шаблон, шарада, шпаклевать, штурм, шурф, щипцы, щиток, принтер, ипотека, менеджер, триллер, сертификат. Тренировочное задание на формулирование объединяющих признаков для лексикосемантических групп слов [Кронгауз, 2006, с. 56]. Вычеркните лишнее. Задайте объединяющий признак для оставшихся: Бегемот, пума, тигр, жираф, кикимора; Чашка, рюмка, фужер, стакан, мензурка; Ветер, туман, облачность, радуга, землетрясение. Тренировочные упражнения на сочетаемость слов. Задание 1. К данным синонимам подберите подходящие по смыслу существительные. Сердечный, тёплый; настоящий, натуральный, подлинный, неподдельный; правильный, верный, безошибочный, точный [Панов, 2012, с 13]. Задание 2. В каком ряду сочетаний слов все причастия употреблены в переносном значении? Подберите к словосочетаниям с переносным значением словосочетания с прямым значением и наоборот. 1) распущенный ребёнок, сорванный голос, натянутая струна; 2) заснувший лес, потерянный кошелёк, рассеянные семена; 3) замкнутый характер, открытая душа, цветущая женщина; 4) погасший взгляд, запущенный дом, танцующая пара. Упражнения на актуализацию фразеологизмов в 5–7 классах. Приводим их побольше, так как подобных упражнений недостаточно в учебниках [Вакурова, с. 15]. �Содержание Задание 1. В каком ряду не все фразеологические обороты являются синонимами? 1) петь дифирамбы, превозносить до небес, возводить на пьедестал; 2) от слова до слова, от аза до ижицы, от альфы до омеги; 3) на краю света, за морями, за долами, за тридевять земель; 4) молоко на губах не обсохло, молодо-зелено, море по колено. Задание 2. В каком ряду не все фразеологические обороты являются синонимами? 1) сорвать маску, вывести на чистую воду, вывести в люди; 2) вставлять палки в колёса, перебегать дорогу, портить обедню; 3) втирать очки, водить за нос, морочить голову; 4) тянуть лямку, гнуть спину, проливать пот. Задание 3. Какое сочетание слов не является фразеологизмом? 1) белый танец; 2) белый стих; 3) белое вино; 4) белая рубашка. Какие ещё знаете фразеологизмы со словом белый? (белая ворона, белый и пушистый). Задание 4. В каком предложении нет фразеологического оборота? 1) Я заканчиваю обучение в медицинской академии и уже без пяти минут врач. 2) Сию минуту верните мне мою сумочку! 3) Многие думали, что катастрофа неизбежна, и с минуты на минуту ждали её. 4) На часах десять минут одиннадцатого. Составьте свои предложения с этими устойчивыми сочетаниями слов. Задание 5. Какая пара фразеологизмов не является антонимами? 1) капля в море, сколько душе угодно; 2) взять себя в руки, заваривать кашу; 3) выеденного яйца не стоит, цены нет; 4) воспрянуть духом, повесить голову. Задание 6. Какой фразеологический оборот имеет значение «наиболее уязвимое место»? 1) авгиевы конюшни; 2) вавилонское столпотворение; 3) ахиллесова пята; �Содержание 4) филькина грамота. Проясните происхождение данных фразеологизмов. Задание 7. Какой фразеологический оборот имеет значение «правильно оценивать истинное положение дел»? 1) смотреть в оба; 2) смотреть другими глазами; 3) смотреть сквозь пальцы; 4) смотреть правде в глаза. Составьте предложения с этими фразеологизмами. Соберите коллекцию фразеологизмов на разные темы. Содержательны, развивающи и увлекательны языковые игры на карточках, типа «Русский Ерундопель», «Чилибуха». Для их проведения можно выделить, например, субботние уроки, классные часы. А некоторые примеры с карточек можно включать и в обычные уроки. Контрольное задание: Слово о слове. Даётся слово и предлагается определить все его лексические значения, подобрать синонимы, антонимы, омонимы (если возможно); употребить в составе словосочетаний, в предложениях разных стилей речи, употребить как средство выразительности. Слова лучше брать из нейтральной общеупотребительной лексики. Например, в 5–6 классе можно взять слова: одряхлеть, раздражать, тревога, радость, грамота, столпотворение, победа, случайность, уставший, тёртый, порожний и др. �Содержание 5.2. Словообразовательные и морфематические умения Таблица 3 Словообразовательные умения в упражнениях Умения Членить слова на морфемы. Различать однокоренные слова и формы слова Выделять морфемы на основе смыслового и словообразовательного анализа. Объяснять (понимать) значения русских и иноязычных морфем (приставок, например) По типичным суффиксам и окончанию определять части речи и их формы Пользоваться словообразовательными словарями1 Типы упражнений Упражнения на морфемный разбор слова Класс 5 Прямые и обратные действия с моделями слов. Различение морфем-омонимов Упражнение на распределение слов по значению аффиксов Упражнения с зеркальными текстами (типа «Пуськи бятые» Л.Петрушевской) Систематическая работа со словарями 6–7 Знать основные способы образования слов. Строить словообразовательные гнёзда и цепочки Представлять продуктивность морфемы, типичные словообразовательные модели Восстановление пропущенных в словообразовательной цепи слов. Восстановление порядка в цепи Упражнения на образование слов по модели 6–7 Различать омонимичные корни, суффиксы и приставки Мини-контексты на смысловую нагрузку морфем. Упражнения на распределение слов по группам аффиксов 5–8 Определение роли аффиксов в лексическом значении слова Определение роли аффиксов в толковании лексического значения и обратное действие (по лексическому значению аффиксов собрать слово) 5–7 Определять изменение лексического значения слова с изменением аффикса Конструирование и трансформирование слов: «морфемный конструктор», «морфемный трансформер» 5–7 6–7 7–8 7–9 8–9 1 Словообразовательные словари (деривационные словари) – словари, показывающие членение слов на составляющие их морфемы, словообразовательную структуру слова, а также совокупность слов (словообразовательное гнездо) с данной морфемой – корневой или аффиксальной. Слова в словообразовательных словарях приводятся с расчленением на морфемы и с ударением. Потиха З. А. Школьный словарь строения слов русского языка. М., 1987. Солженицын А. И. Русский словарь языкового расширения. М., 1990. Ефремова Т. Ф. Толковый словарь словообразовательных единиц русского языка. М., 1996. Левашов Е. А. Географические названия: Прилагательные, образованные от них. Названия жителей: Словарь-справочник. СПб., 2000. Агеева Р. А. Какого мы роду-племени? Народы России: имена и судьбы. Словарь-справочник. М., 2000 (словарь содержит около 150 словарных статей, словарная статья включает название этноса в русском языке в формах мн. ч., а также ед. ч. муж. и жен. р.; самоназвание; названия в языках соседних народов, а также в англ., нем., фр. языках; происхождение этнонима; список литературы и др.). Городецкая И. Л., Левашов Е. А. Русские названия жителей: словарь-справочник. М., 2003. (Более 14 000 названий жителей России, республик бывшего СССР и зарубежных стран.) �Содержание Исследования в области интуитивного владения языком дают важные для понимания явления интуитивной грамотности выводы. В диссертации Е.А. Аввакумовой, например, приводятся данные неосознанного владения языковыми моделями слов детьми 6–7 лет: «Морфемный анализ – определение семантики слова по его словообразовательной модели. Морфемный синтез – конструирование слова по определённой словообразовательной модели. Выполнение данных операций – не результат специального обучения, а результат неосознанного обобщения речевого опыта» [Аввакумова, с. 18]. По мнению М.Д. Степановой, «модель – это не только структура: она предполагает определенное содержание, характеризующее структуру. Именно содержание модели, иначе, её семантическая сторона, в настоящее время приобретает особое значение». Обратим внимание на природосообразную суть морфемно-деривационной деятельности в школе. Реализация операций морфемного анализа и морфемного синтеза является ядром в развитии интуитивной грамотности школьников. Необходимо вести активные тренировочные упражнения на определение семантики слова по его словообразовательной модели (морфемный анализ) и на конструирование слова по определённой словообразовательной модели (морфемный синтез) на всех ступенях изучения родного языка. Выполнение данных операций будет усиливать естественную мотивацию в изучении родного языка. Стартовое задание 1 (морфемика). Соберите слова из морфем. Знакомство с работой морфемы. Наблюдение за составом слова. Даётся набор морфем. Приставки: под-, пере-, над-, в-, за-, по-. выКорни: -сад-, -ход-, -мен-, -мет-, -водСуффиксы: и, я, к, ов, н, ник, ну. Постфикс -ся (-сь). Методический комментарий. Желательно собрать как можно больше слов и понять, как меняется значение слова с изменением приставки, суффикса. Почему нет окончания? Можно ли определить лексическое значение слова по значению входящих в его состав морфем? Можно ли из этих элементов составить слово без корня? (Слово «вынуть» даёт возможность убедиться в высокой значимости морфем, каждая из которых может «работать» на лексическое значение слова самостоятельно). Понаблюдать за специфическими частеречными морфемами (первичные наблюдения). После выполнения такого стартового задания появляется вектор для наблюдений за морфемикой, её явлениями. Тренировочное упражнение 1. Определите лексическое значение слова по значению морфем: аптекарь, передвижение, шагнуть, сероватый. Подберите слова с таким же составом аффиксов. Проанализируйте их значение. Тренировочное упражнение 2. Разделите слова на группы по значению суффикса. Определите основания для выделения групп. Дополните каждую группу новыми словами. Хлебница, темница, грешница, пепельница, сахарница, склочница, больница, соусница, воспитательница, теплица, сплетница, художница, мыльница, скромница, грабительница, защитница, писательница, икорница, помощница, мельница, чернильница, игольница. Наглец, гитлеровец, мудрец, продавец, характерец, храбрец, морозец, холодец, гордец, палец, старец, конец, подлец, купец, жнец, ленинец, супец, боец, испанец, немец, иностранец, хлебец, братец, хитрец, борец, сталинец. �Содержание Варка, чистка, внучка, оценка, девятка, волейболистка, переписка, пенсионерка, посылка, артистка, студентка, гимнастка. Коровник, помощник, осинник, подоконник, пододеяльник, работник, проводник, ельник, скворечник, подводник, участник, охотник. Приоткрыть, пришить, прилететь, притормозить, привстать, привязать, прикрепить, приблизить, приподняться, приклеить, приписать, придумать, призадуматься, примчаться. Такие группы можно собрать с разными суффиксами, приставками, задание можно выполнять в индивидуально-тренировочном либо зачётном варианте. Тренировочное упражнение 3 (на омонимию приставок). Составьте с приставками ряды слов так, чтобы были очевидны их разные значения, включите их в контекст. Опишите эти значения. Пере- (переехать. переписать, переболеть, перестараться, переучиться,), пре- (превосходный, прекратить, преобразить), при- (прикрутить. приехать, приручить, привстать, пришкольный, приготовить), от- (отвлечь, отстрадать, отработать, отступить), за- (запеть, завести в тупик, заоблачный), под- (подземный, подбросить, подписать, подкрутить). Тренировочное упражнение 4. В каком ряду морфемное строение всех слов соответствует схеме: корень, суффикс -ат-, окончание -ый? 1) усатый, хвостатый, сжатый; 2) лохматый, репчатый, ноздреватый; 3) бородатый, крылатый, полосатый; 4) дощатый, узорчатый, волосатый. Методический комментарий. Можно попросить учеников 5–6 классов составить словосочетания (предложения) с этими словами. Во-первых, при этом уточняется значение данных слов, во-вторых, расширяется активный лексико-семантический репертуар детей. Можно попросить уточнить частеречную принадлежность этих слов и спросить, какое слово ближе к глаголу, чем к прилагательному, и почему. Итоговое задание (морфемика). При участии всего класса составить словарь морфем, провести турнир приставок, суффиксов, корней. Стартовое задание 2 (словообразование). Вдвоём мы добежали до самого побережья. Мы плескались водой, бегали по берегу, кидали в море водоросли и слушали их весёлый плеск. Потом мы прыгали по камням и допрыгали до лодочной станции. У самой воды росли одуванчики, и мы стали бросать их в лодку. Нас было только двое, и нам было весело. Методический комментарий. В тексте наблюдаются различные словообразовательные модели, устанавливаются отношения «производящее – производное (произведённое)». Возможны задания: а) на составление словообразовательных пар; б) на наблюдение за специфическими способами образования различных частей речи; в) на «работу» вида глагола в характеристике действия. Тренировочное упражнение 1. Определите способ образования слова. В каком ряду расположены слова, образованные приставочным способом [Вакурова]? �Содержание 1) нелегальный, шахтёр, акционер; 2) вдвое, чертёжник, голубиный; 3) израсходовать, ускакать, вызывающе; 4) подписать, пригород, сверхмощный. Методический комментарий. Уместно выяснить значения незнакомых слов или уточнить (проверить по словарю) значение малознакомого слова, предваряя проверку собственной версией. Желательно с азартом продолжить ориентировочную линию по определению частеречной принадлежности слов, пока этот навык не станет устойчивым. Тренировочное упражнение 2. В каком ряду расположены слова, образованные суффиксальным способом [Вакурова]? 1) сапожок, зубной, землянка; 2) вбежать, красавец, глупыш; 3) дипломник, циркач, предыстория; 4) вредитель, баловень, прародина. Тренировочное упражнение 3. В каком ряду расположены слова, образованные приставочносуффиксальным способом [Вакурова]? 1) надомник, приусадебный, пресмешной; 2) подбородок, бесстыдник, разнесчастный; 3) по-братски, подводник, переувлажнить; 4) подснежник, разбежаться, приморский. Тренировочное упражнение 4. Какое слово пропущено в словообразовательной цепочке: равный – равнять – … – уравнение? Нужное слово выберите из списка: уравнять, сравняться, поровну, равнение. Тренировочное упражнение 5. В какой словообразовательной цепочке нарушена последовательность образования слов? [Вакурова] 1) валить – перевалить – перевалка – вперевалку; 2) варить – сварить – сварки – газосварочный; 3) щетина – щетинить – щетиниться – ощетиниться; 4) стекло – стекленеть – остекленеть – остекленелый. Итоговое задание. Составить словообразовательную цепочку для слов: осмотрительность, присоединение, раскатисто. �Содержание 5.3. Орфографические и морфематические умения Таблица 4 Орфографо-морфематические умения в упражнениях Уме ния Видеть слабые позиции в написании слов Типы упражне ний Определение морфемного состава и части речи слова. Определение ошибкоопасных мест и их обоснование Класс 5–9 Уместно применять правила Распределение слов по орфограммам 5-9 Находить и исправлять орфографические ошибки в разных морфемах Корректирование текстов 5-9 Владеть навыками автоматического письма Диктанты разных типов 5-9 Понимать и реализовывать принципы русской орфографии в свободном письме Взаимо- и саморедактирование сочинений, изложений разных типов 8-9 Объяснять правописание трудно-проверяемых орфограмм с опорой на значение, морфемное строение и грамматическую характеристику слова Работа со словарями. Анализ слов с морфемно-этимологических позиций. 8-9 Классической аксиомой является тезис: непременным условием овладения нормами современной русской орфографии является умение членить слово на морфемы. Морфологический принцип русской орфографии столь логичен и в целом последователен, что практически не знает исключений. (Подсчитано, что в текстах на русском языке этому принципу отвечает 96 % написаний.) По утверждению Д.Н. Богоявленского, «орфографией морфем русского языка овладевают в той мере, в какой овладевают их значением». В лингводидактике уже существуют методики, способствующие овладению значением аффиксов, разработанные А. М. Шахнаровичем, Л. И. Айдаровой. Так, например, Л.И. Айдарова, работая со словообразовательными моделями родного языка, отмечает, что имеется немало фактов, «говорящих о том, как можно вести ребёнка от осознания грубых семантических различий к улавливанию все более и более тонких оттенков значений» [Аввакумова, с. 83]. Напомним студенту-практиканту ещё раз о связанности всех разделов языка и о важности демонстрации этой целостности при обучении родному языку в школе. Воспользуемся примером из интернет-ресурса http://www.yaklass.ru/materiali?mode=lesson&lsnid=515. Применяя морфологический принцип, необходимо учитывать и словообразовательные процессы, благодаря которым возникло в системе языка конкретное слово. Скажем, существительные ночёвка и ножовка имеют разные суффиксы и соответственно пишутся по-разному именно вследствие различий в словообразовании. Слово ночёвка образовано при помощи суффикса -к- от глагола ночевать, в котором присутствует суффикс -ева- – формообразовательная единица, образующая формы несовершенного вида глаголов первого спряжения от соответствующих глаголов совершенного вида (застрять – застревать). Разумеется, именно наличие суффикса -ева- в основе мотивирующего слова определяет написание существительного ночёвка через букву ё. Слово ножовка образовано тоже при помощи суффикса -к- , но производящая основа имеет здесь принципиально иную грамматическую природу: предыдущим звеном в этой словообразовательной цепочке является прилагательное ножовый, которое содержит суффикс -ов- – регулярную и очень продуктивную словообразовательную единицу, производящую относительные имена прилагательные с общим значением свойственности кому-либо, отношения к �Содержание кому-либо или чему-либо, названному мотивирующим словом (берёзовый, классовый, фруктовый). Этим обстоятельством и объясняется написание существительного ножовка через букву о. Идея влияния понимания семантики морфем на обучение грамотному письму тесно связана с достаточно разработанной в лингводидактике идеей развития интуитивной грамотности. Формулируется последняя достаточно просто: «Алгоритм формирования орфографической интуиции предполагает движение от слова с морфемой в сильной позиции к слову с морфемой в слабой позиции. Первое слово является по отношению ко второму помощником. Данный алгоритм не предусматривает целесообразности формирования орфографической зоркости. Результатом его, как мы предполагаем, должна стать выработка интуитивной самопроверки, в основании которой лежит морфемный канал языковой способности человека. Данный алгоритм является универсальным для всех морфем… Графический облик морфем в сильной позиции, по нашему предположению, формирует способность автоматически сохранять тождество написания морфем [Голев, 2001]. Полагаем, что нет смысла предлагать отдельные упражнения по орфографии, поскольку этот раздел «сквозной», он обслуживает все остальные разделы. Орфографическая грамотность является следствием нормальной ориентации школьника во всех разделах языковой системы. Поэтому современному учителю следует уходить от повышенного внимания к орфографии в ущерб вниманию к другим, более содержательным сторонам языка. Нельзя орфографию отождествлять с языком и ошибки в орфографии – с незнанием языка. Можно предложить списочно примеры написания омонимичных частей речи (также, так же; во время, вовремя и т. п.), а также слов с дифференцирующими написаниями (обаяние – обоняние, сверстник – ровесник, яства – явственный, искусный – искусственный). Приложение 2 содержит сводные таблицы значений, встречающихся в школьном курсе родного языка суффиксов и приставок. Как правило, дети с интересом реагируют на панорамное представление языкового материала. �Содержание 5.4. Фонематические и орфоэпические умения Таблица 5 Орфоэпические умения в упражнениях Уме ния Типы упражне ний Правильно произносить гласные, согласные звуки Наблюдения за образованием звуков, и их сочетания в составе слов артикулирование Класс 5 Произносить правильно заимствованные, сложносокращённые слова Артикулирование (орфографическое чтение) 6–8 Пользоваться орфоэпическим словарём Работа со словарём, с русским алфавитом, в том числе – с древнерусским. Игра «Ударник» 6–9 Произносить русские скороговорки Переводить графический облик слова в фонетический и наоборот Активное урочное и внеурочное скороговорение Полное и частичное транскрибирование 5–7 5–7 Наблюдать и оценивать свою и чужую речь с точки зрения орфоэпических норм и вариантов Составление дневника речевого поведения (например, по модели Н.В. Максимовой) 8–9 Стартовое задание. Расставьте ударения в словах скороговорки: От зорьки и до зорьки моряки на вахте зорки. Запишите транскрипцией созвучные слова. Сравните значение этих слов. Тренировочное упражнение 1 [Граник]. Из стихотворного отрывка выпишите вначале все звонкие, а потом все глухие согласные звуки. Ветер осенний в лесах подымается, Шумно по чащам идёт. Мёртвые листья срывает и весело В бешеной пляске несёт. (И. Бунин) Тренировочное упражнение 2 [Граник]. Выпишите из стихотворных строчек слова, в которых есть только глухие согласные звуки. У папы три капли упали со шляпы. Кошка согрела озябшие лапы. (В. Левин) Тренировочное упражнение 3 [Граник]. Затранскрибируйте слова и подчеркните а) одной чертой слова, в которых есть только глухие согласные, б) волнистой линией – слова, в которых только звонкие согласные, в) двумя чертами подчеркните слова, в которых есть и глухие, и звонкие согласные. Петушок, гребешок, травинка, бровинка, голова, борода, грива, катушка, кадушка, лягушка, пятка, копыто, ириска, сосиска, домовой, огороды, колокольчики. Тренировочные упражнения игрового типа. Способствуют развитию языковой догадки, расширяют словарный запас, тренируют внимание к графике слова. Интересно обсудить с учениками, как они ищут ответ, какие подсказки можно увидеть, если присмотреться к родовым формам других слов. Цепочки слов. Метаграммы – слова, различающиеся одной буквой (звуком). Для таких превращений интереснее подбирать слова, имеющие какую-то смысловую связь: мышка > мошка > кошка. �Содержание Упражнение 1. Превратите: час в век, место в парту, зуб в рот, душу в тело, дочь в мать. Упражнение 2. Метаграмма в стихах: С буквой т его прочтём, С буквой д мы в нём живём. С г я очень высока, С н – жилище для зверька. С буквой к для тенниса я нужен, С т я сладок и красив снаружи. С з нужна в бильярде я, С ж я след после дождя, С п я видеть помогаю, С н путь ночью освещаю. Упражнение 3. Даны слова: бак, порт, лайка. Назовите как можно больше слов, отличающихся от данных лишь одной буквой. Например: сор – бор, вор, жор, мор, тор, хор; сыр – сэр; сок – сом, сон, соя. Все незнакомые слова обсуждаются; в трудных случаях ученики обращаются к словарям, укрепляя опыт работы с ними. Упражнение 4. Игра «Одна фонема, марш!» [Граник, с. 33] • Из каждого приведённого слова всласть, склон, полк, тепло, беда, экран удалите по одной фонеме так, чтобы получилось новое слово. Например: горсть – гость. • Добавьте к каждому слову одну фонему так, чтобы получилось новое слово: рубка, стол, клад, лапа, шар, усы, укус. Например: роза – гроза. • Замените одну согласную фонему другой, чтобы получилось новое слово: ногти, булка, лапка, зубы, киска, песок, галка, орёл, норка, клин, тоска, свет, полено, рамочка. Например: корж – морж. Пятиклассники с азартом создают коллекции таких слов-трансформеров, обмениваются ими, играют в них с родителями и друзьями. Можно играть в игру «Ударник» – на постановку правильного ударения в словах. Упражнение 5. Найди ошибку в пословице, возникшую из-за замены всего лишь одной буквы в слове. 1. Когда на горе мак свистнет. 2. Без хозяина лом сирота. 3. На горе шапка горит. 4. Бедность не порог. 5. Лучше хлеб с содой, чем пирог с бедой. 6. Где мед, там и муки. 7. Первый блин колом. �Содержание 5.5. Морфологические умения Таблица 6 Морфологические умения в упражнениях Уме ния Типы упражне ний Определять самостоятельные и служебные части Упражнения на различение частей речи по их речи признакам. Переводы «зеркальных», искусственных текстов из несуществующих слов Класс 5–7 Уметь склонять, спрягать, связывать слова, образовывать формы наклонения Задания на восстановление форм слов в тексте 5–7 Наблюдать и описывать систему формоизменения и морфологические признаки частей речи Упражнения на формоизменение частей речи; на построение словосочетаний, предложений с использованием заданных форм слов 5–7 Согласовывать со сложносокращёнными, Упражнения на согласование форм слов между несклоняемыми словами, словами общего рода собой прилагательные и глаголы в прошедшем времени 6–7 Определение роли формы слова в высказывании (тексте) Упражнения на определение смыслов текста при замене времени глагола, вида, наклонения; числа существительного, формы прилагательного 5–7 Различать омоформы, омофоны, омографы и определять часть речи Упражнения на определение лексического значения омонимичных форм частей речи, подбор синонимов, возможных антонимов. Составление с ними мини-текстов 6 Стартовое задание для 5 класса. Определите части речи у всех слов по известным вам признакам. Какую роль они выполняют в тексте как члены предложения? Скоро Лена поправилась. Сначала она решила тренироваться на вратаря. Она посмотрела по телевизору футбольный матч, пока болела. Лена сказала, что от вратаря всё зависит. Он командует, куда всем бежать. И я подумал, что вратарь – это как раз для Лены, и захотел подарить ей первый мяч. Методический комментарий. Текст даёт возможность увидеть весь объём знакомых частей речи, пополнить этот список незнакомыми словами и потренировать навык определения части речи по известным признакам. Стартовое задание для 6 класса. Определите части речи у всех слов по известным вам признакам. Какую роль они выполняют в тексте как члены предложения? После обеда в первый день каникул мы с Леной провели между нашими домами канатную дорогу. Забравшись на карниз, Лена двумя руками схватилась за крепко натянутую верёвку, а босые ноги закинула наверх, сцепив их в замок. Пока она карабкалась в сторону своего дома, я не дышал. Лене скоро девять, и у неё сил поменьше, чем у тех, кто побольше. Методический комментарий. Текст даёт возможность увидеть незнакомые части речи «в работе» внутри текста и соотнести их со знакомыми, обосновать свои предположения по определению части речи. Стартовое задание для 7 класса. Определите части речи у всех слов по известным вам признакам. �Содержание Какую роль они выполняют в тексте как члены предложения? Выделите возможные лексикосемантические группы слов. Довольно быстро погода нахмурилась, стало темно. Мы спрятались в дом и в течение дня ничем не занимались. Когда мы ложились спать, снаружи уже вовсю громыхало. Я долго лежал и вслушивался в непогоду. Но тут загрохотало так сильно, что я не улежал. Выбравшись из кровати, пошёл к маме с папой. Просто чтобы спросить, нормально ли, чтобы гремело так сильно. Методический комментарий. Текст даёт возможность расширить представление о наречии, о служебных частях речи, их функции и словообразовательной связи с самостоятельными. Можно тренироваться в выделении лексико-семантических групп слов с различными значениями. Такие задания можно проводить регулярно, чтобы дети к ним привыкли. Тренировочное упражнение 1 (6 класс). Прочитайте текст. Запишите его, раскрыв скобки. Озаглавьте и поясните свой заголовок. Сильно одряхлел дедушка, а прежде был (мОлодец). Плохо он видел, слышал; (рука) и (нога) дрожали у него от (старость): несёт (ложка) ко (рот) – и суп расплёскивает. Не понравилось это (сын) и (невестка): перестали они (отец) с собой за стол сажать, запрятали его за печь и стали кормить из глиняной (чашка). Задрожали (рука) у (старик), чашка выпала и разбилась. Пуще прежнего разозлились сын и невестка: стали кормить (отец) из старой деревянной (миска). У старикова (сын) был свой маленький сынок. Сидит раз мальчик на (пол) и складывает что-то из (щепочка). – Что ты делаешь, дитятко? – спросила у него мать, вытирая (посуда) (полотенце). – (Коробочка), – отвечает дитя, – вот как вы состаритесь с (тятенька), я и вас буду из деревянной (коробочка) кормить. Переглянулись отец с (мать) и покраснели. Перестали с тех (пора) (старик) за печь прятать и из деревянной (миска) кормить. (По рассказу К.Д. Ушинского)1 Тренировочное упражнение 2 [Вакурова, с. 8]. В каком ряду все существительные общего рода? Значение незнакомых слов определите по словарю. 1) брюзга, плакса, судья, недотрога; 2) агроном, ровня, космонавт, задира; 3) тихоня, непоседа, скряга, запевала; 4) недоучка, невежа, разиня, кассир. Тренировочное упражнение 3 [Вакурова, с. 9]. В каком ряду все существительные относятся к среднему роду? Значение незнакомых слов определите по словарю. 1) коммюнике, какао, бра, авеню, депо; 1 http://www.planetaskazok.ru/ushinskyskz �Содержание 2) метро, пианино, кольраби, вуаль, кофе; 3) зебу, кашне, рантье, меню, салями; 4) пари, такси, кашпо, бюро, жюри; Тренировочное упражнение 4 [Вакурова, с. 9]. В какой строке указана неверная грамматическая характеристика выделенного существительного? Когда медведь был уже близко, Антип схватил вилы. 1. Начальная форма – вилы. 2. Постоянные признаки: нарицательное, неодушевлённое. 3. Употреблено во множественном числе, в винительном падеже. 4. В предложении является прямым дополнением. Тренировочное упражнение 5 [Панов, 2012, с. 196]. К каждому из данных глаголов найдите парный по виду. Составьте предложения с некоторыми из получившихся видовых пар. Заметьте, какие чередования происходят в этих парах. Как изменяется место ударения? 1. Углубиться, оскорбить, озлобить, раздробить, влюбиться, ослабить, употребить, истребить. 2. Заставить, избавить, поправить, прославить, отправить, удешевить, доставить, удивиться. 3. Устремиться, прищемить, уведомить, ознакомить, утомить, оформить, выпрямить. 4. Укрепить, отцепить, накопить, прилепить, притупить, усыпить, ослепить. 5. Снабдить, опередить, проводить, соорудить, остудить, зарядить, нарядиться. 6. Победить, освободить, убедить, возродиться, утвердиться, возбудить, осудить. 7. Ответить, встретить, отметить, заметить. 8. Прекратить, осветить, возвратить, воплотить, возмутить, ощутить. Тренировочное упражнение 6 [Панов, 2012, с. 233]. Ниже приведены формы, образованные от двух глаголов – решить и решать. Определите, к какому из этих глаголов относится каждая форма. Опишите грамматические признаки этих форм. Составьте с некоторыми из них предложения. Решу, решай, решивший, решающий, реши, решаемый, решённый, решая, решив, решаю, решил, решал. Тренировочное упражнение 7 [Панов, 2012, с. 205]. В следующих предложениях правильно употребите глаголы. 1. Он забыл (запирать, запереть) дверцу клетки, и птица улетела. 2. Сторож обычно (запирал, запер) все двери в восемь часов вечера. 3. В споре он любит неожиданным доводом (припирать, припереть) своего противника к стенке, а потом полностью обезоружить его строго логическим доказательством. 4. Толпа (напирала, напёрла) на дверь до тех пор, пока она не распахнулась. 5. Научись (убрать, убирать) своё рабочее место поле работы. �Содержание 6. В течение пяти минут (убирай, убери) весь этот мусор. 7. Он завтра появится с рогаткой, и я, как увижу, так и (отбираю, отберу) её. 8. Третий вечер наш учитель (отбирает, отберёт) лучшие рисунки для выставки. 9. Гудок постепенно затихает вдалеке, как будто (умирает, умер). 10. Я забыла о нём, он для меня (умирал, умер). Тренировочное упражнение 8 [Панов, 2012, с. 251]. Частица бы в повествовательном предложении может занимать место либо после первого слова, либо после глагола. Проверьте по тексту, так ли это. Хорошо бы сейчас оказаться дома. Принял бы ванну, поужинал, смотрел бы телевизор. Никуда бы не пошёл и никому бы не позвонил, честное слово. Просто сидел бы с мамой рядом, а она бы радовалась втихомолку. Я никогда с ней ничего не смотрел, разве только хоккей, а так всё время улепётывал на улицу или читал в своей комнате. Не люблю я глядеть в этот ящик и слушать замечания, что Наташка сыграла бы не хуже, но мама это обожает, и ей, наверное, было бы очень приятно, если бы я торчал рядом… (Б. Васильев) А. Найдите в тексте глаголы в форме сослагательного наклонения. Б. Расскажите о чём-нибудь, чего вам очень хотелось бы. Используя формы сослагательного наклонения, позаботьтесь о разнообразии в размещении частицы бы: иногда ставьте её после первого слова в предложении, иногда – после глагола. Методический комментарий. Освоение формальных признаков глагола происходит в процессе работы с текстом, где глаголы «работают», что обеспечивает более естественное усвоение материала. Подобного рода упражнения можно составлять по всем частям речи, во всех классах, где изучается морфология. �Содержание 5.6. Синтаксические умения Таблица 7 Синтаксические умения в упражнениях Уме ния Выделять словосочетания из текста, задавать вопросы от главного слова к зависимому Типы упражне ний Выделение в предложениях словосочетаний разных типов Переконструирование синонимичных словосочетаний из одного типа в другой Класс 6–8 Составлять словосочетания Соединение слов разных частей речи в словосочетание 5–6 Выделять грамматические основы предложения, второстепенные члены предложения Уметь согласовывать глагол-сказуемое с подлежащим, выраженным словосочетанием Распространение грамматических основ в предложении. Распределение членов предложения по принадлежности к группе подлежащего и группе сказуемого 5–9 Различать изученные виды простых и сложных Определение границ частей сложного предложения. предложений; виды придаточных предложений. Формулирование точных смысловых вопросов от Составлять схемы предложений одной части предложения к другой. Составление горизонтальных и вертикальных схем предложений. Выделение в тексте предложений, соответствующих заданной схеме 8–9 Интонировать грамотно осложнённые, сложные Интонирование разного типа предложений как предложения и предложения с отсутствующей сопутствующее задание ко всем типам связкой предложений 8–9 Находить в предложениях смысловые отрезки, Составление пунктуационного комментария к обосновывать выбор знаков препинания текстам 7–8 Определять границы причастных и деепричастных оборотов Определение грамматической зависимости слов внутри оборота и за его ближайшими пределами 7–8 Наблюдать, определять синтаксическую роль частей речи Формулирование вопросов от слова к слову внутри групп подлежащего и сказуемого 7–8 Делать смысловой и грамматический анализ обособленных конструкций (обращения, вводные слова и предложения; обособленные определения, дополнения, обстоятельства, приложения) Определение места и роли обособленных конструкций в предложениях. Распространение текста обособленными конструкциями 8–9 Правильно использовать местоимения как средство связи предложений и частей текста Комментирование роли местоимения в предложении. Составление предложений с заданной функцией местоимений 9 Стартовое задание для 8 класса. Восстановите нормальный вид деформированного текста, запишите. Сравните с образцом. Обсудите, что меняется в тексте при другой расстановке границ предложений. Подчеркните все члены предложений. РазночьюпроснулсяяоткриканапалубекричалитревожноиспуганнобыстрооделсявыбежалФёдоркочега ркричалшёлсвахтыувиделзмеювыползшуюизнаваленныхдеревьевизсамойихгрудыЗмеявылезлаисейчасж еназадспряталасьсамаврукутолщинойчутьлинедвесаженидлной! �Содержание Кто-тосказал«онитеплолюбятклюдямвкойкизаползают»всепримолклиповернувшиськство-лам. Раз ночью проснулся я от крика на палубе. Кричали тревожно, испуганно. Быстро оделся, выбежал. Фёдор-кочегар кричал. Шёл с вахты, увидел змею, выползшую из наваленных деревьев, из самой их груды. Змея вылезла и сейчас же назад спряталась. Сама в руку толщиной, чуть ли не две сажени длиной! Кто-то сказал: «Они тепло любят, к людям в койки заползают». Все примолкли, повернувшись к стволам. (по рассказу Б.С. Житкова «Мангуста») Методический комментарий. Текст даёт возможность: а) увидеть весь объём простых предложений, с различными видами осложнений, б) пронаблюдать изменение ритма текста при удлинении предложений, в) потренироваться в выделении членов предложений. Стартовое задание для 9 класса. Задайте вопросы от части к части сложного предложения. Установите отношения между частями, укажите средства связи. Сделайте пунктуационный разбор предложений (к этому заданию детей нужно приучать регулярно). Озаглавьте текст. (Чувство утраты) С каждым может случиться, что жил с человеком, глядел на него и не видел. И когда он вдруг исчез, тут-то и открылся в тебе внутренний взгляд на него, а сердце сжалось смертельной тоской. Этого так много бывало на земле во все времена, что не обошло никого. Иногда и тот чувствует тоску, кто не испытал ещё смертельной утраты. Радуясь жизни, которой полон, он остановится и подумает: а если я, радуясь, пропущу что-то и потом буду жалеть? (По М.М. Пришвину) Методический комментарий. Текст упражнения даёт возможность наблюдать виды связей между частями предложения, понимать, как связываются смысловые фрагменты внутри высказывания, как связь работает на понимание смысла предложения и всего текста. Можно также пронаблюдать наполнение лексико-семантической группы «человек и его внутренний мир». Стоит обратить внимание, например, на лексические значения пар слов глядел – видел, жил – исчез. Тренировочное упражнение 1. Расставьте знаки препинания. Обсудите возможные варианты. Придумайте свой текст с подобным пунктуационно-смысловым эффектом. Хитрый купец Хитрый купец оказавшись во время шторма в открытом море обещал если он останется жив подарить богу морей Нептуну «статую золотую чашу держащую». Но высадившись на берег решил пожертвовать Нептуну «статую золотую чашу держащую». Тренировочное упражнение 2. Наведите порядок в пословицах, найдите к началу пословиц соответствующие окончания, после союза ДА. В скобках даны ключи ответов1. 1. Не светило не горело, ДА на другом блюде. (13) 2. Криво рак выступает, ДА не в обиде (11) 1 https://www.psyoffice.ru/3-0-praktikum-00463.htm �Содержание 3. Не было ни гроша, ДА хлеб жуем (9) 4. И рад бы в рай, ДА как бы не пропасть (16) 5. Зашел к куме, ДА объелся груш (8) 6. Милует царь, ДА нечего есть (10) 7. Видит око, ДА не всяк творит (15) 8. Был муж, ДА засел в тюрьме (5) 9. Живем, ДА вдруг алтын (3) 10. Зубы есть, ДА не жалует псарь (6) 11. В тесноте, ДА иначе не знает (2) 12. Беды мучат, ДА нельзя миновать (14) 13. Тот же блин, ДА вдруг припекло (13) 14. Грех воровать, ДА уму учат (14) 15. Всяк правду ищет, ДА зуб неймет (7) 16. Жениться не пропасть, ДА грехи не пускают (4) Одним из эффективных методов при повторении пунктуации является пунктуационный анализ предложения, когда обосновывается постановка каждого знака препинания, графически выделяются конструкции и составляется схема предложения. Предлагаются задания: • Найдите, какой из данных конструкций соответствует предложенная схема. • Рассмотрите схему: что в ней отражено. • Дайте характеристику предложению по его схеме. • Сравните схемы двух предложений: что в них общего и что различает? • Сгруппируйте данные конструкции в соответствии с предложенными схемами. • Найдите предложения к данным схемам. • Используйте данные схемы в качестве плана для сообщения на соответствующую тему. • Найдите ошибку в характеристике предложения. Интересным методом работы над правилами русской пунктуации является самостоятельный подбор учениками примеров на пройденное правило из различных текстов. Это могут быть не только художественные произведения, но и тексты научного или газетно-публицистического стиля (фрагменты или отдельные предложения из энциклопедий, статей и т. п.). Заинтересованное отношение учителя к выполненным заданиям создаёт естественную мотивацию при обсуждении подобранных примеров, закрепляется отметкой. Вариант итогового задания. Составьте предложение из описательных характеристик слов. Придумайте собственный текст на заданную в этом предложении тему. 1. Местоимение, образованное приставочным способом с помощью безударной отрицательной �Содержание приставки от основы местоимения, которое одновременно является вопросительным и относительным. В толковом словаре С.И. Ожегова второе лексическое значение этого слова: «О человеке, не состоящем с кем-либо в родственных, дружеских отношениях» /разг. / Он мне … 2. Отрицательная частица. 3. Глагол I спряжения, несовершенного вида, в изъявительном наклонении, в 3 лице, в единственном числе. В неопределённой форме это слово – омограф к устаревшему синониму слова «сила». Одно из значений слова – «быть в состоянии». 4) Первое слово фразеологизма со значением «много говорить, обсуждать кого-либо или что-либо». 5.–6. Определительное местоимение во множественном числе, в предложном падеже с предлогом, употреблённое в значении существительного. Одно из лексических значений данного слова: «кто-то иной, не сам». 7. Слово «пока». 8. Отрицательная частица. 9. Синоним глагола «выучиться» в будущем времени. 10. Лексическое значение десятого слова: «оставлять, высказывать мнение», а также «рассматривать дело в судебном порядке». 11. Предлог. 12. Данное слово входит в состав следующих фразеологизмов: «набивать … цену», «не по …», «знать … цену», «держать при …», «вбить … в голову». 13. Слово употреблено в предложном падеже, а в именительном падеже это первая часть многих слов, придающая их значениям оттенок «своими силами». Ответ: Никто не может судить о других, пока не научится судить о себе самом. �Содержание 5.7. Общетекстовые умения Таблица 8 Общетекстовые умения в упражнениях Умения Выделять ключевые слова в текстах разной коммуникативной природы Выделять слова, предложения в тексте без пробелов Ориентироваться в основной и дополнительной текстовой информации Воспроизводить заданный текст с сохранением графики Воспроизводить текст с сохранением смысла Делить текст на абзацы, предложения Восстанавливать правильный порядок слов, предложений, абзацев Сжимать разные типы текстов разными способами. Озаглавливать Разворачивать разные типы текстов разными способами (см. список тем по классам) Составлять рассказы по картинкам Составлять описание предмета, действия, портрета, ситуации Восстанавливать опущенные элементы и фрагменты текста Типы упражнений Составление списков ключевых слов из разных текстов. Составление текстов по ключевым словам Запись восстановленного текста с обсуждением вариантов Маркировка разных типов текстов в плане основной и дополнительной информации. Составление тезисных планов Знакомые и незнакомые поэтические тексты записываются по памяти, либо после краткого визуального прочтения и обсуждения Фразовое письмо. Записываются не слова, а мысли Восстановление границ предложений, абзацев внутри деформированного текста Восстановление текстов, деформированных на разных уровнях (переставлены слова/ предложения/ абзацы) Упражнения на озаглавливание разных типов текстов (в том числе – с подтекстом); на краткое формулирование ответа на вопрос «О чём текст?», с обсуждением вариантов ответов. Осмысление заголовка как способа сжатия текста Связывание тезисов в единый текст. Определение темы текста Составление коротких рассказов по сюжетным картинкам, по описанию картин художников, фотографий, рекламных рисунков. Наблюдение и описание игровых техник в рекламных текстах Наблюдение закономерностей построения разных типов текстов, с последующим написанием своего текста по данной модели Клоуз-тесты, построенные на разных типах текстов, с разными учебными задачами Класс 6–9 5–6 7–9 5–7 6–7 5–7 7–9 8–9 7–9 6–7 5–9 6–9 Составлять тезисы/конспект небольшой статьи Работа с образцом тезисного конспекта после коллективного прочтения медиа-текста. Коллективная работа с текстом с фиксированием заданных параметров 8–9 Проводить маркировку текста (выделять основную, иллюстрирующую и аргументирующую информацию, средства связи между предложениями, фрагментами текста) Прогнозировать содержание текста по его началу. Писать стилизации Маркирование специально подобранных текстов по заданным параметрам. (Составить список рекомендуемых текстов) 8–9 Написание продолжений текста по его началу. Игра «Буриме». Переводы со славянских и известных детям европейских языков. Рассмотрение известных текстов-подражаний в сравнении с текстами-оригиналами. Составление собственных стилизаций 8–9 �Содержание Общетекстовые умения универсальны, они объединяют в себе все уровни подготовки и в то же время требуют специального внимания и тренировки. Основы системы развития общетекстовых умений представлены нами в пособии [Киркинская, Вульфович]. Приведём некоторые упражнения. Стартовое упражнение для 5 класса. Восстановите графически деформированный текст, в котором нет пробелов между словами. УсашитёмныеглазаисветлыеволосысвихраминазатылкеСашаприглаживаетихпоминутноладонямиднё мглазауСашисовсемнетёмныеасиниесголубизнойнаносуунеговеснушкитолькоонивовсенебольшиеуВеры носкурносыйволосысрыжеватозолотымоттенкомоднипрядипосветлеедругиепотемнееэтоонилетомн аморетаквыгорают. Тренировочное упражнение 1. Поставьте глаголы в необходимую форму. Коля выходить из кабины и останавливаться, потому что в комнате что-то измениться. Или его обманывать глаза. Во-первых, дверцы платяного шкафа быть закрывать, хотя Коля их и не трогать. Ну, это ещё не самое странное – дверцы мочь сами захлопнуться, когда кабина дрожать, как перепугаться заяц. Но куда-то исчезать все раскладушки, а стены комнаты, которые только что быть оклеить зелёными обоями, оказаться совсем белыми, покрасить. Коля даже протереть глаза. Не помогать. Тогда Коля решить об этом не думать. Если совершенно ничего не понимать, лучше не думать. Этому правилу Коля следовать, если его вызывать к доске, а он не мочь решить задачу или не знать, в каком году была открыть Америка. Тогда он смотреть в окно и не думать о задаче или Америке. Всё равно двойки не избежать. Если, правда, какая-нибудь добрая душа не подсказать. (По К. Булычёву. Сто лет тому вперёд) Тренировочное упражнение 2. Перестройте грамматически деформированный текст в нормальный текст. Гоголь – разновидность утка, отличаться красный оперение, важный, щеголеватый походка. Вот что писать о гоголи директор Московский зоопарк И.Сосновский: «Самые забавные из появившиеся птенцы – это утята гоголь. При выход из скорлупа они рост всего с воробей. Но если воробей появляться на свет голый, беспомощный, то гоголята с первые часы жизнь «ходить гоголь» в бархатная пёстрая одежда. Ничто не бояться – быстрые, ловкие». (Из газеты). Тренировочное упражнение 3 [Шапиро]. Отредактируйте текст, объединив предложения. Моя собака маленькая, коричневая. У неё гладкая шерсть. У неё белое пятно на правом боку. У неё белое пятно на левом глазу. У неё длинные висячие уши. У неё короткие кривые ноги. У неё короткий хвост. Выполнить его можно примерно так: Моя собака маленькая, гладкая, почти вся сплошь коричневая, но с двумя белыми пятнами – на правом боку и на левом глазу. Уши у неё длинные, висячие, а кривые лапы и хвост короткие. Методический комментарий. Заметим, что пришлось заменить ноги на лапы, исправив довольно распространенную ошибку (а еще в детских описаниях животных нередки рот и лицо), и употребить творительный падеж существительного – с пятнами. Можно улучшить текст, сделав описание динамическим, например, придумать ситуацию, в которой понадобится описание (знакомство, узнавание, встреча после долгой разлуки). И тогда может �Содержание получиться так: Мне навстречу мчится, перебирая короткими кривыми лапами, моя вислоухая собачка. Скоро она подбежит поближе, и можно будет разглядеть, какая у нее гладкая коричневая шерстка, какие белые пятнышки на правом боку и на левом глазу, какой смешной коротенький хвостик. Тренировочное упражнение 4. На место (..?..) поставьте подходящее, на ваш взгляд, слово. Сравните с вариантами одноклассников. Как вы думаете, почему возникают эти варианты? Полынья Холодина! Слипаются ресницы, слипаются ноздри. Вдохнёшь – зубы стынут. Стекленеют уши, пальцы скрючило – пуговицы не застегнуть. На солнце можно в упор смотреть: не светит оно, а засыпает землю мелким толчёным стеклом. И снег визжит под ногами, как рассерженный поросёнок. На ручье полынья – чёрная водомоина. И пар над ней, как у раскрытого рта, – ручей дышит… От тёплого дыхания ручья выросли на льду цветы. Махровые венчики с тычинками и лепестками. Белые и холодные. (..?..) цветы зимы. (Н. Сладков. Азбука леса) Методический комментарий. Данный текст в виде клоуз-теста, где пропущено единственное авторское слово «мёртвые», порождает много вариантов выполнения, связанных с индивидуальным прочтением-пониманием. При проведении урока в 6 классе учитель раздал каждому ученику этот клоуз-тест. Сначала дети обсуждали, что понравилось в тексте, какой он по впечатлению – грустный или весёлый, светлый или тёмный, динамичный или монотонный (по классификации В.П. Белянина). Затем на доске были записаны все варианты восстановления пропущенного слова и проведено обсуждение-доказательство смысловой тождественности вставленного слова смыслу всего текста. Каждый «автор» слова пытался привести текстовые аргументы в пользу своего слова. После предъявления авторского слова ученики испытали восторг и удивление, осмыслили происхождение и значение слова «мёртвые» с помощью этимологического словаря. Стартовое упражнение для 8–9 классов. Запишите коротко, о чём этот текст. Дайте ему заголовок. Обсудите варианты ответов в классе. Мне всегда кажется, что я работаю больше, чем следует. Это не означает, что я отлыниваю от работы, боже упаси! Я люблю работу. Она меня зачаровывает. Я способен сидеть и смотреть на неё часами. Я люблю копить её у себя: мысль о том, что с ней придётся когда-нибудь разделаться, надрывает мне душу. Перегрузить меня работой невозможно: набирать её стало моей страстью. Мой кабинет так набит работой, что в нём не осталось ни дюйма свободного места. Придётся пристроить к дому новое крыло. К тому же я обращаюсь со своей работой очень бережно. В самом деле: иная работа лежит у меня годами, а я даже пальцем до неё не дотронулся. И я горжусь своей работой; то и дело перекладываю её с места на место и стираю с неё пыль. Нет человека, у которого работа была бы в большей сохранности, чем у меня. (Джером К. Джером. Трое в одной лодке) Методический комментарий. Текст можно предъявлять по-разному, в зависимости от уровня готовности класса. Аудиальное восприятие возможно тогда, когда ученики уже имели дело с визуальным опытом подобной работы с текстом. Сначала составляются и записываются в тетради индивидуальные варианты решения, затем они обсуждаются в парах (на понимание друг друга и выработку общего варианта), затем в четвёрках, затем каждая четвёрка доказательно озвучивает свой �Содержание общий результат перед всем классом. Важно обнаружить иронию в этом тексте и способы её выражения. Упражнение на восстановление пропущенного текстового субъекта [Доблаев]. Испытуемым предлагается прочитать группу предложений, выражающих предикат, не имеющий своего субъекта: Днём скалы нагреваются, ночью остывают. День за днём такие колебания температуры приводят к тому, что скала растрескивается. В трещины проникает вода. Ночью она застывает, и лед с большой силой раздвигает трещины. Методический комментарий. В этом тексте отсутствует тема, субъект, который может иметь, например, форму вопроса, поставленного в самом начале: «Как происходит разрушение гор?» или конечного предложения: «Под влиянием этих сил горы разрушаются». После прочтения испытуемым задаются вопросы, направленные на то, чтобы выяснить, осознают ли они отсутствие и необходимость восстановления текстового субъекта, например, такие вопросы: «Возникла ли у вас во время чтения какая-нибудь неясность? Что, на ваш взгляд, требуется для её устранения?» Если и на второй вопрос испытуемый не даёт адекватного ответа, ему предлагаются четыре ответа, из которых необходимо выбрать один подходящий: 1) о том, что скалы нагреваются, остывают и растрескиваются; 2) о том, что в скалах образуются трещины; 3) о том, какие именно силы действуют на скалы; 4) о том, каковы причины разрушения гор. Вариант итогового задания Граффити Я киплю от злости, так как в четвёртый раз стену школы очищают и перекрашивают, чтобы покончить с граффити. Творчество – это прекрасно, но почему же не найти такие способы самовыражения, которые не причиняли бы лишний ущерб обществу? Почему надо портить репутацию молодого поколения, рисуя на стенах там, где это запрещено? Ведь художники-профессионалы не вывешивают свои полотна на улицах, не так ли? Вместо этого они находят средства и завоёвывают славу на официальных выставках. По моему представлению, здания, ограда, парковые скамейки сами по себе произведения искусства. И разве не жалко портить эту архитектуру росписью, не говоря уже о том, что используемый для этого метод разрушает озоновый слой. И я не могу понять, почему эти самозваные художники так злятся, когда их так называемые «художественные полотна» убирают с глаз долой снова и снова. Хельга У людей разные вкусы. Общество перенасыщено информацией и рекламой. Знаки торговых компаний, названия магазинов. Большие навязчивые плакаты по обеим сторонам улиц. Приемлемо ли всё это? В основном, да. А приемлемы ли граффити? Некоторые говорят да, некоторые – нет. Кто платит за эти граффити? А кто в конечном итоге платит за рекламу? Правильно. Потребитель. А спросили ли те, кто ставит рекламные щиты, вашего разрешения? Нет. Тогда должны ли это делать люди, рисующие на стенах? Не просто ли это вариант общения, например, ваше собственное имя, названия партий или большие произведения искусств на улице? Только вспомните о полосатой и клетчатой одежде, появившейся в магазинах несколько лет назад. И �Содержание о лыжных костюмах. Модели и цвета были скопированы с разрисованных бетонных стен. Довольно забавно, что и эти модели, и цвета принимаются сегодня в обществе, восхищают, а граффити в том же стиле считаются ужасными. Да, трудные времена настали для искусства. Софья Эти два письма пришли по Интернету и оба о граффити. Граффити – это рисунки или надписи на стенах или других местах, часто выполненные без официального разрешения. Используйте письма для ответов на вопросы, предлагаемые ниже. Вопрос 1. Какова цель каждого из писем? Возможные варианты ответов: • Объяснить, что такое граффити. • Выразить своё мнение о граффити. • Продемонстрировать популярность граффити. • Рассказать людям, что очень много средств тратится, чтобы смыть эти росписи. Вопрос 2. Почему Софья ссылается на рекламу? Вопрос 3. Согласны ли вы с каким-либо из этих писем? Дайте своими словами обоснование своей точки зрения, при этом используя аргументы из писем. Вопрос 4. Кто из этих двух авторов, по вашему мнению, написал письмо лучше? Анализируя каждое письмо, можно обсуждать и что говорится в письме (т. е. его содержание), и как написано письмо (т. е. его стиль). Обоснуйте свой ответ. �Содержание Вопросы и задания для самостоятельной работы 1. Подберите упражнение, помогающее понять смысл высказывания В.А. Богородицкого: «При каждом отдельном акте мысли слово берётся только в одном определённом значении». Встройте упражнение в учебный контекст: определите тему, этап её изучения, приобретаемое умение и сопряжённые с ним базовые умения; сформулируйте мотивационное задание. 2. Пользуясь таблицей из 5.2., проанализируйте школьные учебники на наличие в них упражнений, направленных на развитие указанных словообразовательных и морфематических умений обучаемых. 3. Проиллюстрируйте серией примеров смысл высказывания Д.Н. Богоявленского: «Орфографией морфем русского языка овладевают в той мере, в какой овладевают их значением». 4. а) Разработайте список-тренажёр для отработки произношения трудных русских и заимствованных и сложносокращённых слов, список русских скороговорок для 5–7 класса; б) подберите небольшие тексты для тренировки способности с помощью интонации передавать отношение к предмету речи (при чтении текста вслух). �Содержание 6. Интегрирующие составляющие урока при его проектировании Молодому учителю важно на любом этапе подготовки и проведения урока делать акцент на особой роли ученика в процессе обучения. Подчёркивать, что он вправе ошибаться, задавать «глупые» вопросы; как носитель языка – думать по-другому, по-своему ориентироваться в языковом материале. При правильной организации обсуждения языковых и речевых вариантов на уроке ученик реально может сам вывести себя на рефлексивный уровень языковой подготовки. Проектирование урока – синтезирующий процесс, он объединяет и согласует следующие составляющие, в которых учитель должен ориентироваться, прежде всего, под углом развития ребёнка. Во-первых, учителю важно иметь собственное понимание, полученное в результате смыслового вычитывания всех документов и материалов, регламентирующих и сопровождающих процесс изучения родного языка: а) официальные документы: • Федеральный закон «Об образовании в Российской Федерации" № 273-ФЗ от 29 декабря 2012 года с изменениями 2017–2016 года1; • ФГОС основного общего образования2; • Примерные программы основного общего и среднего (полного) общего образования3; б) Аналитические материалы, расширяющие видение сути образования: • Иерархия трансверсальных навыков согласно Европейской классификации навыков, компетенций и профессий (ESCO)4. в) Локальные нормативные документы образовательной организации. Во-вторых, зная государственную программу обучения, необходимо иметь сводную таблицу базовых и новых, «приращиваемых» умений по разделам языка с 5 по 9 класс. Примеры таких таблиц мы предложили в разделе 5. Таблицу следует соотнести с рабочей программой, с темами и количеством уроков по каждой теме. Только тогда возникнет реальный контекст для системного развития языкоречевых умений обучаемых, который будет естественным образом побуждать развитие всех компетенций в рамках ФГОС. При таком подходе на первый план выходит личность обучаемого. Появляются качественные измерители обучения – последовательно развиваемые умения по разделам языка. Из класса в класс, из урока в урок возрастают величины измеряемых параметров. Постепенно приращиваемые умения будут переходить в статус базовых, укрепившихся умений-пониманий. Важно, что этот процесс будет осознанно планироваться учителем, и будут создаваться условия для осознанного восприятия этого процесса обучаемыми. На уроке будут всё чаще возникать реплики: «А мы это уже проходили», «А я 1 http://zakon-ob-obrazovanii.ru 2. Пример расположения стандарта на сайте школы: http://shkola-48.ru/ru/8/292/376/ 3 http://www.edu.ru/db/portal/obschee/index.htm 4 https://ec.europa.eu/esco/web/guest/hierarchybrowser/-/browser/Skill �Содержание помню, как ошибся в прошлый раз», «А помните, как мы поняли, что…». Ученики и учитель всё чаще смогут обращаться к коллективному учебному опыту. Количество и качество подобных реплик вполне могут стать одним из критериев оценки качества обучения на уроке, серии уроков по теме. Предыдущий учебный контекст должен быть зафиксирован в проекте урока, учитель относится к нему как к актуальному учебному опыту. Он становится опорой, базой для понимания нового и связывается в сознании, прежде всего учителя, с дальнейшей учебной перспективой. 6.1. Логическая свёртка урока и коммуникативно-деятельностная развёртка урока 6.2. Варианты технологических карт урока русского языка �Содержание 6.1. Логическая свёртка урока и коммуникативно-деятельностная развёртка урока Под логической свёрткой урока мы понимаем общий образовательно-развивающий замысел урока по данной теме, связывающий а) знакомый материал, б) учебный и реальный речевой опыт ребёнка с в) новым материалом и с г) учебной перспективой, ориентирующей в системе языка. Учитель фиксирует следующие позиции: 1. Тема урока, этап её изучения и вытекающий из этого тип урока (введение, закрепление, итог). 2. Перечень известных базовых лингвистических понятий, а также практических умений ученика, связанных с изучаемой темой. 3. Перечень новых, «приращиваемых» понятий и умений. 4. Цель деятельности учителя, чему научатся обучающиеся. 5. Задачи урока, этапы (шаги по достижению цели: что нужно сделать, чтобы обучающиеся этому научились, какие будут выполнены задания). 6. Языковой материал для наблюдений и работы. 7. Какие учебные продукты будут созданы учениками. Приведём пример логической свёртки урока в соответствии с этим планом. Проект уроков по фразеологии в 5 классе (учебник В.В. Бабайцевой) 1. Что такое фразеологизмы, как они устроены? Как работают в предложениях? Уроки 1-й и 2-й. 2. Крылатые слова, синонимы, антонимы, лексическое значение, члены предложения. Умения: объяснять значение слова, подбирать к словам синонимы, антонимы, определять члены предложения. 3. Фразеология языка, фразеологизмы, фразеологические обороты, свободные сочетания слов. Расширение активного запаса русских фразеологизмов. Умение их объяснять и использовать. 4. Фразеологические конструкции как устойчивые, несвободные сочетания слов составляют выразительный пласт национальной лексики. Ученики 5 класса, встретившись впервые в учебном режиме с фразеологизмами как системным явлением нашего языка, научатся: а) видеть особенности устройства устойчивых сочетаний слов, моделировать их; б) выделять эти сочетания слов среди подобных свободных сочетаний слов; в) подбирать синонимы и антонимы к фразеологическим выражениям; г) толковать основные, близкие возрасту, фразеологические сочетания слов, пользуясь словарём; д) определять фразеологизм в качестве члена предложения. 5. А. Выявление языкового опыта учеников, введение в тему: – Какие устойчивые выражения знакомы (из предложенного списка)? �Содержание – Как мы говорим образно, когда, например, человек ленится, плохо работает? – Что обозначает выражение «сесть в лужу», в каких случаях мы его используем? – Какие устойчивые выражения вы ещё слышали, знаете? – Исследуем, почему они называются устойчивыми и ещё – несвободными? В лингвистике их ещё называют фразеологизмами (от греч. phrasis (фрасис) – что значит «выражение») А их совокупность образует фразеологию языка. Б. Обобщение полученного учебного опыта: – Как вы думаете – фразеология есть только в русском языке или в других языках, у других народов тоже есть такие яркие обороты речи, такие выражения? – Зачем они нужны людям? – Как они появляются в языке? – Собирают ли их люди, берегут? Как можно сберечь слова, выражения? – Легко ли переводить фразеологизмы с одного языка на другой? В. Знакомство с дополнительной информацией и подготовка сообщений в классе (эти сообщения можно предложить затем сделать заметками в стенгазету) по вопросам: – Из истории фразеологизмов; – Об источниках русской фразеологии; – Что такое крылатые слова. Г. Тренировочные упражнения в учебниках: – На подбор синонимов и антонимов к фразеологическим оборотам; – на выделение фразеологизмов в качестве членов предложения. Д. Индивидуальные упражнения на карточках разной степени сложности: «Закончи высказывание», «Начни высказывание», «Вставь пропущенный оборот», «Замени свободное сочетание слов несвободным (фразеологизмом, устойчивым оборотом)»; «Исправь ошибку в использовании фразеологического оборота». Е. Составление весёлых рассказов с использованием фразеологизмов (домашнее задание на выбор ученика, с использованием учебных карточек). Ж. Сбор коллекции фразеологизмов по тематическим группам, интересным Иллюстрирование её (пролонгированное задание). для учеников. 6. Список фразеологических оборотов для работы по тематической группе «качества человека и его поступков» (см. Зимин В.И. Пословицы и поговорки русского народа. Большой объяснительный словарь. – М., 2006): – два сапога пара; одного поля ягода; – мотать на ус; зарубить на носу; праздник на носу; – повесить нос; с носом остаться; �Содержание – собаку съел (на чём-нибудь); пустить козла в огород; – заварить кашу; расхлёбывать кашу; – как в воду глядеть; мокрая курица; сесть в лужу; – засучив рукава; спустя рукава; – бить баклуши; набрать воды в рот; – бросаться в глаза; сломя голову; – руки чешутся; махнуть рукой (на себя); – себе на уме; очки втирать; – лодыря гонять; через пень колоду (характеристика действия); – задать жару; шевелить мозгами; – ни зги не видно; делать из мухи слона; за тридевять земель; – лезет в глаза, мозолит глаза (о надоедливом человеке). Упр. 102, 104 (из учебника под ред. М.В. Панова). Упр. 719, 720 (из учебника под ред. В.В. Бабайцевой). Карточки с индивидуальными заданиями по теме урока. Школьный фразеологический словарь. 7. а) учебные упражнения в тетради; б) набор текстовых карточек с использованием фразеологизмов; в) заметки в стенгазету, иллюстрированные «фразеологические истории» для учеников выпускного класса начальной школы (их можно также разместить в учебном кабинете русского языка, где учатся 5классники); г) по желанию ученики создают личные словарики фразеологизмов и крылатых слов, с рисунками и весёлыми рассказами. Делают их выставку для родителей. Коммуникативно-деятельностная развёртка урока организации коммуникативного пространства урока: предполагает планирование элементов а) способ выполнения каждого задания – устно/письменно, со слуха/c доски/с индивидуальной карточки/после визуального просмотра/виртуально, с разбором примера у доски или без него; б) способ обсуждения результата на каждом этапе урока – через индивидуальную сверку с образцом, с обсуждением возникших вариантов; через взаимопроверку; в процессе работы в парах, четвёрках; в) как будут использоваться на каждом этапе пространство доски, технические средства. Желательно также в некоторой степени провоцировать учеников на вопросы, реплики, обмен мнениями, отмечать их продуктивность в плане создания общего контекста понимания «трудных» мест. При создании таких взаимно заинтересованных условий итоги урока будут легко и естественно «подводиться» учениками. Каждый получит впечатление от живого общения и личный знаниевый результат. �Содержание 6.2. Варианты технологических карт урока русского языка Технологическая карта урока (общая схема) 1. Класс: ________________ Дата: ______________Предмет___________________ 2. Тема урока:____________________________________________________________________ 3. Место и роль урока в изучаемой теме:_____________________________________________ Цель деятельности учителя (цель урока) Тип урока (см. таблицу 1 ниже) Планируемые образовательные результаты (есть в рабочей программе) Предметные Метапредметные Личностные Методы и формы обучения (см. таблицу 1 ниже) Образовательные ресурсы (адреса сайтов, ссылки на источники) Оборудование (см. таблицу 1 ниже) Основные понятия (по теме урока) �Содержание Таблица 1 Организационная структура урока Этапы урока (см.таблицу 2) 1. Организационный момент 2. Проверка домашнего задания (не обязательно) 3. Целеполагание 4. Открытие нового знания 5. Первичное закрепление 6. Самостоятельная работа 7. Повторение 8. Контроль и оценка 9. Инструктаж по выполнению домашнего задания 10. Рефлексия Задания для учащихся, выполнение которых приведёт к достижению планируемых результатов Деятельность учителя (см. таблицу 2) Деятельность учеников Формы организации Универсальные учебные (см. таблицу 2) взаимодействия действия (см. таблицу 4) �Содержание Таблица 2 Конструктор для составления технологической карты урока Типы уроков Оборудование: Усвоение новых знаний. Урок комплексного применения знаний и умений (урок закрепления). Урок актуализации знаний и умений (урок повторения). Урок систематизации и обобщения знаний и умений. Урок контроля знаний и умений. Урок коррекции знаний, умений и навыков. Комбинированный урок Интерактивная доска, мультимедийный проектор, технические средства обучения, электронные средства обучения, компьютеры, магнитная доска, демонстрационные модели по содержанию учебной дисциплины, раздаточные материалы Формы обучения Индивидуальная, фронтальная, парная, групповая Методы обучения Эвристический, поисковый, создание проблемных ситуаций Формулировки деятельности учителя Проверяет готовность обучающихся к уроку. Озвучивает тему и цель урока. Уточняет понимание учащимися поставленных целей урока. Выдвигает проблему. Создаёт эмоциональный настрой. Формулирует задание. Предлагает индивидуальные задания Формулировки деятельности ученика Записывают слова, предложения. Делят (звуки, слова, предложения) на группы. Выполняют упражнения в тетради. По очереди комментируют. Обосновывают выбор написания. Приводят примеры. Пишут под диктовку. Проговаривают по цепочке. Выделяют (находят, подчёркивают, комментируют) заданные позиции �Содержание Таблица 3 Типы и структура уроков Урок комплексного Урок актуализации Урок систематизации и Урок контроля знаний Урок коррекции знаний, применения знаний и знаний и умений обобщения знаний и и умений умений и навыков умений (урок повторения) умений (урок закрепления) 1. Организационный 1. Организационный 1. Организационный этап. 1. Организационный этап. 1. Организационный 1. Организационный этап. этап. 2. Проверка домашнего 2. Постановка цели и этап. этап. 2. Постановка цели 2. Проверка домашнего задания, воспроизведение задач урока. Мотивация 2. Постановка цели и 2. Постановка цели и и задач урока. задания, и коррекция знаний, учебной деятельности задач урока. Мотивация задач урока. Мотивация Мотивация учебной воспроизведение и навыков и умений учащихся. учебной деятельности учебной деятельности деятельности коррекция опорных учащихся. 3. Актуализация знаний. учащихся. учащихся. учащихся. знаний учащихся. 3. Постановка цели и 4. Обобщение и 3. Выявление знаний, 3. Итоги диагностики 3. Актуализация Актуализация знаний. задач урока. Мотивация систематизация знаний. умений и навыков, (контроля) знаний, знаний. 3. Постановка цели и учебной деятельности Подготовка учащихся к проверка уровня умений и навыков. → 4. Первичное задач урока. Мотивация учащихся. обобщённой сформированности у Определение типичных С усвоение новых учебной деятельности 4. Актуализация знаний а) деятельности. учащихся ошибок и пробелов в Т знаний. учащихся. с целью подготовки к Воспроизведение на общеучебных умений. знаниях и умениях, Р 5. Первичная 4. Первичное контрольному уроку; новом уровне Уроки контроля могут путей их устранения. У проверка закрепление а) в б) с целью подготовки к (переформулированные быть уроками В зависимости от К понимания. знакомой ситуации изучению новой темы. вопросы). письменного контроля, результатов диагностики Т 6. Первичное (типовые задания); 5. Применение знаний и 5. Применение знаний и уроками сочетания учитель планирует У закрепление. б) в изменённой умений в новой умений в новой устного и письменного коллективные, Р 7. Информация о ситуации (нестандартные ситуации. ситуации. контроля. В групповые и А домашнем задании, задания). 6. Обобщение и 6. Контроль усвоения, зависимости от вида индивидуальные → инструктаж по его 5. Творческое систематизация знаний. обсуждение допущенных контроля формируется способы обучения. выполнению. применение знаний в 7. Контроль усвоения, ошибок и их коррекция. его окончательная 4. Информация о 8. Рефлексия новой ситуации обсуждение допущенных 7. Рефлексия (подведение структура. домашнем задании, (подведение итогов (проблемные задания). ошибок и их коррекция. итогов занятия). 4. Рефлексия инструктаж по его занятия) 6. Информация о 8. Информация о Анализ и содержание (подведение итогов выполнению. домашнем задании, домашнем задании, итогов работы, занятия) 5. Рефлексия инструктаж по его инструктаж по его формирование выводов (подведение итогов выполнению. выполнению. по изученному занятия) 7. Рефлексия (подведение 9. Рефлексия (подведение материалу итогов занятия) итогов занятия) Тип урока → Усвоение новых знаний Комбинированный урок 1. Организационный этап. 2. Постановка цели и задач урока. Мотивация учебной деятельности учащихся. 3. Актуализация знаний. 4. Первичное усвоение новых знаний. 5. Первичная проверка понимания 6. Первичное закрепление 7. Контроль усвоения, обсуждение допущенных ошибок и их коррекция. 8. Информация о домашнем задании, инструктаж по его выполнению. 9. Рефлексия (подведение итогов занятия) �Содержание Таблица 4 Кодификатор универсальных учебных действий Познавательные УУД Коммуникативные УУД Регулятивные УУД Личностные УУД Осуществление поиска необходимой информации для выполнения учебных заданий с использованием учебной литературы; П1 Понимание возможности различных позиций других людей, отличных от собственной, и ориентировка на позицию партнёра в общении и взаимодействии; К1 Принятие и сохранение К2 учебной задачи; Р1 Осуществление гражданской идентификации личности (осознание своей этнической принадлежности и культурной идентичности на основе осознания «Я» как гражданина России); Л1 Л2 Л3 Использование знаково-символических средств, в том числе моделей и схем для решения задач; П2 Учёт разных мнений и стремление к координации различных позиций в сотрудничестве; К3 Планирование своих Р2 К4 действий в соответствии с поставленной задачей и условиями её реализации и, в том числе, во внутреннем плане; Формирование картины мира культуры как порождения трудовой предметно-преобразующей деятельности человека (ознакомление с миром профессий, их социальной значимостью и содержанием); Л4 Осознанное и произвольное построение речевого высказывания в устной и письменной форме; П3 Формулирование собственного мнения (позиции); К5 Учёт правила в планировании и контроле способа решения; Развитие «Я-концепции» и самооценки Л6 личности (формирование Л7 самоидентификации, адекватной позитивной самооценки, самоуважения и самопринятия) Поиск разнообразных способов решения задач; П4 Умение договариваться и К6 Осуществление итогового и Р4 приходить к общему решению пошагового контроля по в совместной результату; деятельности, в том числе в ситуации столкновения интересов; умение задавать вопросы; Р3 Л5 �Содержание Познавательные УУД Коммуникативные УУД Осуществление смыслового чтения П6 Контроль действий партнёра; художественных и познавательных текстов; Выделение существенной информации из П7 Использование речи для текстов разных видов; регуляции своего действия; Анализ объектов с выделением существенных и несущественных признаков; Осуществление синтеза как составления целого из частей; Сравнение, сериация и классификация по заданным критериям; Установление причинно-следственных связей; Построение рассуждения в форме связи простых суждений об объекте, его строении, свойствах и связях; Доказательство; Выдвижение гипотез и их обоснование. Формулирование проблемы; Самостоятельное создание способов решения проблем Регулятивные УУД К8 Различение способа и результата действия; Личностные УУД Р6 К9 Оценка правильности Р7 выполнения действия на уровне адекватной ретроспективной оценки; П8 Адекватное использование К10 Внесение необходимых Р8 речевых средств для решения корректив в действие после различных коммуникативных его завершения на основе задач; его оценки и учёта характера сделанных ошибок; П9 Построение монологического К11 Выполнение учебных Р9 высказывания; действий в материализованной, громкоречевой и умственной форме П10 Владение диалогической К12 П11 формой речи П12 П13 К13 П14 П15 П16 П17 П18 П19 Формирование ценностных ориентиров и смыслов учебной деятельности на основе: развития познавательных интересов, учебных мотивов; формирования мотивов достижения и социального признания; формирования границ собственного знания и «незнания» Освоение основных моральных Норм (справедливое распределение, взаимопомощь, естественность); Выполнение моральных норм; Л8 Л9 Л10 Л11 Л12 Л13 Решение моральных проблем на Л14 основе децентрации, оценка своих поступков в соответствии с нормами нравственности Л15 �Содержание Таблица 5 Модель технологической карты (автор Т.С. Троицкая, Москва, МПГУ) Предыдущий контекст № ДеятельНазвание Цели этапа ность детей Деятельность учителя Задачи, которые решаются Виды коммуни- Метапред- Личност- Предмет- Коммуникации метные ные ные кативные Этап 1 Этап 2 Этап 3 Этап 4 Этап 5 Учебная перспектива �Содержание Таблица 6 Проект технологической карты для урока литературы в начальной школе (автор Т.С. Троицкая, Москва, МПГУ) Предыдущий контекст актуальный учебный опыт 1) проживание образности в загадках; 2) опыт работы с элементарным образным стихотворением «Ежиная семейка» (образ: ёлка с шишками как ежиха с ежатами) Задачи, которые решаются Виды МетапреКоммуникативЛичностные Предметные коммуникации дметные ные Этап 1 – Прогнозирование Детская цель: 1. Построение гипотезы Прояснить актуальный Участие в Опыт Актуализация/ «Подступы» к Навык антици- по названию + догадаться, о чём по названию; жизненный опыт детей: диалоге (один постро- приобретение проблеме формулирования и пация проверка чтением стихотворение. 2. Проверка гипотезы видели ли они уток, выдвигает ения жизненного соотношения донесения своего «Взрослая» (образоват через чтение слышали ли, как их гипотезу, другие гипотез и опыта (утята, текста и предположения до ельная) цель – подзывают проверяют, их плывущие по заголовка; одноклассников и натолкнуться на уточняют; важно провер- воде; просто открытие учителя; опыт несоответствие услышать друг ки утята; несовпадения понимания и впечатлений от друга, внести зазывание утят (заголовок обсуждения названия и от самого дополнение) и другие отражает не версий текста зазывалки) предметный, а одноклассников образный план) Этап 2 – Работа с Детская цель: 1. Подчёркивание слов Обеспечивает Обмен ? «Проживание» Углубление Навык обмена образобразностью разобраться в причине 2-х тематических групп: самостоятельность индивидуальобразов опыта индивидуальными ность (листья на воде как путаницы – почему утята, листья; прохождения пунктов 1 ными (утончение знакомства с результатами труда утиный выводок ошиблись в гипотезе 2. Обсуждают, кто что (подчёркивание) и наработками; восприятия образностью (выдержать (листята); деревья (есть ли несоответствие подчеркнул, 3 (иллюстрирование) коллективное мира, стихотворения замечания – мамы) между названием обосновывают, каждым ребёнком. преодоление одушевление (от одноклассников и «ути-ути» и сравнивают; Заботится о доступности учебного природы) элементарных учителя; отстоять жизненным 3. Решают проблему: индивидуальных затруднения; стихов с своё мнение и материалом – куда отнести слово результатов труда для обсуждение единичными расслышать осенними листьями на «листята»; всего учебного творческих работ образами – к мнение воде?) 4. Иллюстрирование коллектива (работа на одноклассников лирической собеседника) «Взрослая» (образоват (нарисовать листья так, доске, выставка образности) ельная) цель – выявить чтобы они были рисунков, в том числе и воспринять листятами – походили на размещение в форуме); образность листья и утят Модерирует учебный стихотворения одновременно) диалог № Содержание этапа урока Цели этапа Деятельность детей Деятельность учителя �Содержание № Содержание этапа урока Этап 3 – Лирическое лирич- содержание ность Этап 4 Этап 5 Цели этапа Лирическое (эмоциональное) сопереживание деревьям-мамам, проживание сцены прощания Деятельность детей 1. Поиск слов прямой речи. Просмотр – перечитывание. 2. Выдвижение гипотезы относительно того, кто говорит. 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Вульфсон. – Москва, 2002. – С. 196–218. – Электрон. версия печ. публ. – URL: http://vikent.ru/enc/4618/, свободный. – Загл. с экрана (дата обращения: 10.04.2017). �Содержание Приложения Приложение 1. Фрагмент учебного орфографо-морфемного словаря Приложение 2. Значения некоторых суффиксов имён существительных Приложение 3. Значения приставок имён существительных Приложение 4. Значения приставок имён прилагательных Приложение 5. Список аббревиатур �Содержание Приложение 1. Фрагмент учебного орфографо-морфемного словаря (по материалам диссертации Е.А. Аввакумовой) ВОЛК\\ВОЛЧ вóлк\ – вóлк\а, волч\óк – волч\кá, волч\úще – волч\úща, волч\úха – волч\úхи, волч\úца – волч\úцы, волч \óнок – волч\óнка; вóлч\ий, вóлч\ья, вóлч\ье, вóлч\ьи; волч\кóм (вертеться), вóлк\ом (смотреть) В одном лесу жила семья: вóлк, волчúца и молодой волчóнок. Старый вóлк учил волчóнка охотиться, добывать еду. \БЕЛ\ бéл\ый, бéл\ая, бел\овáтый, бел\ёный, бел\ёхонький, бел\ёшенький; бел\олúцый; бéл\, бел\á, бел\ó; бел \éть, бел\úть, по\бел\úть – по\бéл\ишь; бел\изнá, бел\úла, бел\úтель, по\бéл\ка Бéлый – бéленький – белёхонький зайчишка – беляк бежал по убелённому снегом полю. А вокруг всё белым - белó. \ГОЛОВ\ голов\á, гóлов\ы, голóв\ушка, голóв\ка, голóв\очка, голов\ёнка, голов\úща; голов\олóмка, из\голóвь\е; по \голóв\ный, без\голóв\ый, голов\áстый Гóловы-голóвушки головáстые, дам я вам головолóмку. \ГОЛУБЬ\ гóлубь\, голуб\óк, голýб\ка, голýб\ушка, голýб\онька, голуб\ёнок, голуб\ятня; голуб\úный Гóлубь-голубóк, где твоя голýбка? Гóлубка в голубятне с голубёнком. У гóлубя – голубúная почта. \ГОЛ\ гóл\ый, гол\ослόвный, гол\олёдный; гол\олёд, гол\ыш, гóль, гол\ышка; о\гол\úть, о\гол\яться; до\гол\á Во дворе – гόлый лёд. Это гололёд. Гόленький малыш. Он ходит голышόм. \ГОР\ гор\а, горы, гóр\ка, гор\úща, гор\няк, вз\гóр\ок, вз\гóрь\е, при\гóр\ок, косо\гóр, косо\гóрь\е; гор\ный, гор \úстый, на\гóр\ный, под\гóр\ный На гóр\ке, на гор\é стоит гóр\ец. На земле много гóр. Есть маленькие гóр\ы и большие гор\úщи. \ГОРД\ гóрд\ый, гòрд\, горд\елúвый; гóрд\ость, горд\éц, горд\ячка, горд\ыня; горд\úться, по\горд\úться; гóрд\о, горд\елúво Гóрдый мальчик смотрит горделúво. Нужна гóрдость, а не гордыня. �Содержание \ДАЛЬ\ дáль, у\дал\éние, от\дал\éние; дал\ёкий; от\дал\úть, от\дал\ять, у\дал\úть, у\дал\ять; дал\еко, в\дáль\, в\дал \ú, úз\дал\и, ó\даль\ Дáль удаляется все дáльше. \ГОРЬК\ гóрьк\ий, горьк\овáтый, пре\гóрьк\ий; гóречь, горч\úца; горч\úть; гóрьк\о, пре\гóрьк\о, горьк\овáто Гóрький суп очень горчúт. Во рту – гóречь, горьковáтый вкус. \ГОСТЬ\\ГОЩ\ гóсть, гост\ёк, гóсть\я, гóст\юшка, гост\úнец, гост\úница, у\гощ\éние; гост\евóй, гост\úный; гост\евáть, гост\úть, у\гост\úть, про\гост\úть, по\гост\úть, у\гощ\áть, за\гост\úться Гóсть и гóстья сидят в гостúной с гостúнцем и ждут угощéния. \БЕГ\\БЕЖ\ бéг, бег\á, бег\ýн, бег\ýнья, бег\лéц, бег\лянка, бéж\енец, бéг\анье; бег\овóй, бег\ýчий, бéж\енский; бéг \ать, бежáть; бегóм Любитель бéга (бегýн) бегóм убегáет от злой собаки. Поможет ли умение бéгать нашему беглецý? �Содержание Приложение 2. Значения некоторых суффиксов имён существительных (подготовлено студенткой АлтГПУ Семенцовой Яной) Суффиксы разнообразны по форме, функциям и значению. Они могут переводить одну часть речи в другую, служат для образования новых слов и форм, придают словам разные смысловые оттенки. Приводим наиболее частотные суффиксы, ориентируясь на которые ученики смогут понять значение, смысловые и стилистические оттенки и других суффиксов. Суффикс Значе ния образуе мых слов -АР-ИК-НИК- (муж.), -НИЦ- (жен.), -ТЕЛЬ-ЧИК- / -ЩИК(муж.), Род занятий, профессия лётчик, переводчик, разведчик, грузчик, каменщик, барабанщик, буфетчица, уборщица -ЧИЦ- / -ЩИЦ(жен.) журналист, пианист, связист, тракторист директор, архитектор, кинооператор, композитор -ИСТ-ТОР-УН- Человек или животное по характерному для них действию -ЕЦ- (муж.), -К- (жен.) -ИН- (муж.) / -ИН-К-, Лицо по принадлежности к -К- (жен.) национальности, месту Сложные суффиксы жительства -АН-ИН- / -ЯН-ИН(муж.), -АН-К-, -ЯН-К(жен.) -ОНЬК-ЕНЬК-ИК-ЧИК-ОК- /-ЕК-К-ИЧК-ЕЧК- Приме ры гончар, пахарь, бунтарь, аптекарь библиотекарь академик, историк, физик, химик выпускник, помощник, художник, дворник, лесник, школьница, воспитательница, любительница, учительница, зритель, писатель, слушатель, учитель, читатель Уменьшительно-ласкательное значение грызун, скакун, прыгун, игрун, болтун украинец, американец, испанец, итальянка, кубинка, японка грузин, болгарин, грузинка, татарка киевлянин, минчанин, датчанин, египтянка, северянка, южанка Лизонька, кисонька, доченька, ноченька, Петенька домик, диванчик, листок, ручеёк, человечек, карандашик, кошелёчек головка, комнатка, ножка ручка, сестричка, лисичка, книжечка, чашечка �Содержание заинька, баиньки, паинька пёрышко, солнышко, -ЫШКдонышко, гнёздышко домище, пожарище, -ИЩУвеличительное значение силища, ручища, пылища волчонок, барсучонок, -ОНОК- / -ЁНОК- Названия детёнышей животных верблюжонок, телёнок, поросёнок, котёнок зайчиха, слониха, -ИХНазвания самок животных крольчиха, ежиха, лосиха государство, лекарство, посольство, хозяйство -СТВСовокупность лиц, однородных человечество, братство действий, предметов, свойств кокетство беднота, красота, -ОТдоброта, простота Состояние, качество; названия реализм, формализм, -ИЗМучений или общественных феодализм, классицизм, течений социализм, героизм деятельность, мощность, Признак или состояние; национальность, -ОСТЬпредмет, явление специальность, смелость, внешность, окружность Обозначение действия или его делегация, демонстрация, -ЦИ(Я) результата лекция, организация задание, собрание, -АНИ(Е) расписание, выражение, Обозначение различных -НИ(Е) движение, достижение, понятий среднего рода -ЕНИ(Е) объявление, поражение, сочинение, упражнение кривизна, белизна, новизна -ИЗНПризнак предмета, явления дешевизна, укоризна -ИНЬК- �Содержание Приложение 3. Значения приставок имён существительных Приставка ААНТИАРХИБЕЗ(БЕС-) ГИПЕРДЕ(ДЕЗ-) и ДИСДОЗА- КОНТР- МЕЖДУНА- НЕ- О- (ОБ-) ПАПЕРЕ- ПО- ПОДПОЗАПРА- Значе ние Значение отсутствия Значение противоположности Значение высшей степени, значение старшинства Значение отсутствия чегонибудь Значение превышения предела Значение отсутствия или противоположности Приме ры аморальность, аритмия, асимметрия антигерой, античастица, антивирус, антициклон, антиглобалисты архимиллионер, архиплут архидиакон, архиепископ, архиерей безветрие, безвкусица, безлуние, бесстыдство, беспокойство, беспорядок гиперзвук, гиперинфляция, гиперактивность, гиперпространство демонтаж, демилитаризация, дестабилизация, демобилизация, дезорганизация, дезинформация, дезинфекция, дискомфорт, дисгармония доистория, дошкольник Заволжье, Закавказье, загород, заграница; Значение предшествования Значение нахождения по ту сторону; Значение одного из повторяемых забег, заплыв, занос актов Значение противодействия, контратака, контргайка, контрдовод, направленности против чегоконтрразведка, контрреволюционер, нибудь контрудар, Пространство в промежутке междуречье, междуцарствие, междупутье, между двумя одинаковыми междустрочие, междурядье предметами Поверх чего-нибудь, на чёмнаушник, нарукавник, наколенник, нибудь наконечник, намордник, нагорье, насыпь Образует имена неприязнь, недотрога, неверье, неряха; существительные, без «не» не употребляющиеся; Новые слова-антонимы непогода, неприятель, недруг, несчастье, неволя Значение остатка (что-то, обмылок, осколок, обноски, обрывок, опилки потерявшее свою ценность) Значение неполноты пасынок, падчерица, патрубок Значение повторности; пересмена, переустройство, перерасчёт; перешеек; Соединительное звено или перелесок, переносица, перекрёсток граница между основными предметами Значение места близ чегопобережье, Поволжье; нибудь; Значение действия посиделки, посадка, поклажа, поклёп Ниже чего-нибудь; подлокотник, подбородок, подножие; подотдел, подвид; Значение части подгруппа, подкласс Со значением предшествования позапрошлый Значение отдалённой степени прародители, праотец, прабабушка, правнук; родства; �Содержание ПРЕДПРИ- ПРОРАЗ(РАС-) РЕСВЕРХСО- (С-) СУСУПЕРУЛЬТРАЭКС- прародина, праязык предыстория, Предуралье, предгорье; предощущение, предпосылка Непосредственное примыкание; прибрежье, Прибалтика, приморье, пригород; Значение дополнительности призвук, привкус, присказка, приплод Значение места между чемпрожилка, прослойка, простенок, просёлок, нибудь; проулок; Отражение неполноты признака проседь, прозелень, прочернь Значение высшей степени раскрасавица, разумница признака Значение повторности ретрансляция, реконструкция, реорганизация Значение высшей степени сверхзадача, сверхприбыль, сверхготовность Значение совместности соучастник, совладелец, соотечественник, собрат, спутник Значение подобия суглинок, сумрак, сурепка Значение повышенного качества суперкубок, супертанкер, суперэкспресс, супертяжеловес, супербоевик, суперобложка Значение превышения признака ультразвук, ультраконсерватор, ультрамодернизм Прежде существовавший экс-президент, экс-министр, экс-губернатор Значение древности связей Значение «впереди», «ранее» �Содержание Приложение 4. Значения приставок имён прилагательных АБЕЗ(БЕС-) НАИНЕНЕБЕЗ(НЕ- + БЕЗ-) ПРЕРАЗ- АНТИВНЕДОИНТЕРНАНАДПОПОДПОСЛЕПРЕДПРИПРОТИВО- Каче стве нные Близка по значению к приставкам БЕЗ-, НЕОтсутствие предмета прилагате льные аморальный, алогичный, аритмичный, асимметричный безрукий, безногий, беспалый, безусый, безбородый, беззубый, безволосый, безвольный Выражает экспрессивное наиглавнейший, наикратчайший, усиление наидобрейший Антонимы к прилагательным без несмелый, небольшой, нередкий, этой приставки нехороший, нетрудный Отрицание отсутствия известного небезвредный, небесполезный, признака небезызвестный, небезразличный Значение «очень» презабавный, премилый, преусердный Аналог приставки ПРЕ- с развесёлый, разнесчастный, разлюбезный, оттенком грубоватости разухабистый Относите льные прилагате льные Направленный против чего-либо антифашистский, антинародный За пределами чего-либо внеевропейский, внешкольный, внеурочный Указывает на предшествующее дореволюционный, довоенный, досрочный время Синоним МЕЖДУинтернациональный, интервокальный Положение на поверхности настольный, наземный, нагорный, нательный, нагрудный, набрюшный Положение выше предмета надбровный, надземный, надворный, надзвёздный, надгробный Указывает на последующее время пореформенный, посмертный Положение ниже предмета подводный, подземный, подкожный, подгорный послевоенный, послеоперационный Однозначна с ПОУказывает на ближайшее предреволюционный, предоктябрьский, предшествующее время предвоенный, предвыборный Вблизи предмета приморский, придорожный, приусадебный Для борьбы с чем-либо противоправный, противотуберкулезный �Содержание Приложение 5. Список аббревиатур (подготовлено студентами АлтГПУ Ватутиной Ксенией, Захарченко Анной) Аббревиатура (итал. abbreviatura, от лат. brevis – краткий) – в старинных рукописях и книгах: сокращённое написание слова или группы слов. В современных изданиях аббревиатурой называют любое сокращённое слово или словосочетание. Аббревиатура обычно (но не всегда!) записывается заглавными буквами. Аббревиатуры, читаемые по звукам (а не по названиям букв) и обозначающие имена нарицательные, записываются строчными буквами (например, вуз, роно, дзот). Список сложносокращённых слов: АГЗС – автогазозаправочная станция АДС – аварийно-диспетчерская служба АХЛ – Американская хоккейная лига АХЧ – административно-хозяйственная часть АЭС – аварийная электростанция; автономный электростимулятор; атомная электростанция БАМ – Байкало-Амурская магистраль БОМЖ – без определённого места жительства ВАЗ – Волжский автомобильный завод (название завода и марка выпускаемого им автомобиля) ВДВ – воздушно-десантные войска ВДНХ – Выставка достижений народного хозяйства ВИЧ – вирус иммунодефицита человека ВМФ – военно-морской флот ВНИИ — всесоюзный научно-исследовательский институт ВНП – валовой национальный продукт ВС РФ – Вооружённые Силы Российской Федерации ВУЗ – высшее учебное заведение ГАЗ – Горьковский автомобильный завод (название завода и марка выпускаемого им автомобиля) ГИБДД – Государственная инспекция безопасности дорожного движения ГД РФ – Государственная Дума Российской Федерации ГИТИС – Государственный институт театрального искусства ГУЛАГ (ГУЛаг) – Главное управление исправительно-трудовых лагерей, трудовых поселений и мест заключения ГУМ – Главный универсальный магазин ГУ МЧС – Главное управление Министерства по чрезвычайным ситуациям �Содержание ДОСААФ – Добровольное общество содействия армии, авиации и флоту ДПС – дорожно-постовая служба; дорожно-патрульная служба ЕГЭ – единый государственный экзамен ЕК – Еврокомиссия ЖК – жидкокристаллический; жилой комплекс; Жилищный кодекс ЖКХ – жилищно-коммунальное хозяйство ЖД – железная дорога; железнодорожный ЖЭУ – жилищно-эксплуатационное управление ЗАГС – Запись актов гражданского состояния ЗАО – закрытое акционерное общество ИКТ – информационно-коммуникационные технологии ИП – извещатель пожарный; изолирующий противогаз; индивидуальный предприниматель; инвестиционная программа; инвестиционный проект ИФНС – инспекция Федеральной налоговой службы КМС – кандидат в мастера спорта КХЛ – Континентальная хоккейная лига МГУ – Московский государственный университет МРОТ – минимальный размер оплаты труда МТС – мобильные телефонные сети МЧС – Министерство по чрезвычайным ситуациям (Министерство Российской Федерации по делам гражданской обороны, чрезвычайным ситуациям и ликвидации последствий стихийных бедствий); мониторинг чрезвычайных ситуаций НАТО – транслитерация от англ. сокр. NATO – North Atlantic Treaty Organization – Организация Североатлантического договора, Североатлантический Альянс; новая антитеррористическая организация НДФЛ – налог на доходы физических лиц НПФ – негосударственный пенсионный фонд НТП – научно-технический прогресс ОАО – открытое акционерное общество ОАЭ – Объединённые Арабские Эмираты ОБЖ – основы безопасности жизнедеятельности ОБСЕ – Организация по безопасности и сотрудничеству в Европе ОВЗ – ограниченные возможности здоровья �Содержание ОГЭ – объект государственной экспертизы; основной государственный экзамен ОМВД РФ (ОМВД) – отдел Министерства внутренних дел Российской Федерации ООН – Организация Объединённых Наций ООО – общество с ограниченной ответственностью; основное общее образование ПДД – «Правила дорожного движения» РАНХиГС – Российская академия народного хозяйства и госслужбы СИЗО (СИзо) – следственный изолятор СОШ – средняя общеобразовательная школа СТО – станция технического обслуживания СФ – Северный флот; Совет Федерации СФО – Сибирский федеральный округ ТЭЦ – теплоэлектроцентраль; теплоэнергоцентраль УВД – управление внутренних дел УМК – учебно-методический комплекс УФМС – Управление Федеральной миграционной службы ФГОУ – Федеральное государственное образовательное учреждение ФСБ – федеральная служба безопасности ХБ – хлопчатобумажный ХВ – Христос воскрес ХК – хоккейный клуб ЧОП – частное охранное предприятие ЮНЕСКО – транслитерация от англ. аббревиатуры UNESCO – The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization – Организация Объединённых Наций по вопросам образования, науки и культуры �Содержание Сведения об авторах Киркинская Татьяна Ивановна, кандидат филологических наук, доцент кафедры общего и русского языкознания АлтГПУ. Вульфович Алла Вениаминовна, учитель высшей категории гимназии № 69 города Барнаула. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Киркинская, Татьяна Ивановна Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Урок русского языка в современной школе. Живая методика Subject The topic of the resource 1. Образование. Педагогика. 2. Методика преподавания учебных предметов. 3. Общеобразовательная школа. 4. уроки русского языка. 5. методика обучения. 6. обучение русскому языку. 7. языковые навыки. 8. русский язык. 9. тренировочные упражнения. 10. изучение русского языка. 11. преподавание русского языка. 12. современные школы. 13. современные уроки. Description An account of the resource Урок русского языка в современной школе. Живая методика [Электронный ресурс] : учебно-методическое пособие / Т. И. Киркинская, А. В. Вульфович ; Алтайский государственный педагогический университет. — Барнаул : АлтГПУ, 2018. — 122 с. Пособие посвящено описанию необходимых контекстов для построения эффективного урока русского языка как родного. Изучаются практические подходы к реализации когнитивно-семантического направления обучения. Рассматриваются приёмы работы со стенограммами уроков. Предлагается система упражнений для развития языковых умений школьников в режиме стартового учебного действия, тренировочных и итоговых работ. Издание может быть полезно учителям и студентам, проходящим педагогическую практику. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource <strong><a href="http://library.altspu.ru/ecat/zgate?ACTION=follow&amp;SESSION_ID=10641&amp;TERM=%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F,%20%D0%A2%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8C%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B0%20%D0%98%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B0%5B1,1004,4,6%5D&amp;LANG=rus">Киркинская, Татьяна Ивановна</a></strong> Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Алтайский государственный педагогический университет, 2018 Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Алтайский государственный педагогический университет Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 10.09.2018 Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Вульфович, Алла Вениаминовна Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource ©Алтайский государственный педагогический университет, 2018 Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource pdf, exe Language A language of the resource русский Type The nature or genre of the resource учебно-методическое пособие Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context &lt;URL:<a href="http://library.altspu.ru/dc/pdf/kirkinskaya.pdf" target="_blank">http://library.altspu.ru/dc/pdf/kirkinskaya.pdf</a>&gt;<br />&lt;URL:<a href="http://library.altspu.ru/dc/exe/kirkinskaya.exe" target="_blank"> http://library.altspu.ru/dc/exe/kirkinskaya.exe</a>&gt;. изучение русского языка методика обучения Методика преподавания учебных предметов Образование. Педагогика обучение русскому языку Общеобразовательная школа преподавание русского языка русский язык современные уроки современные школы тренировочные упражнения уроки русского языка языковые навыки http://books.altspu.ru/files/original/38/116/_[650].png a534a9d55c0d9a7b4bb7a8c62ca6169b http://books.altspu.ru/files/original/38/116/Shevchenko[_].pdf 29bb6196849b266e92622bd35405dfca PDF Text Text Содержание �Содержание Об издании Основной титульный экран Дополнительный титульный экран непериодического издания – 1 Дополнительный титульный экран непериодического издания – 2 �Содержание МИНИСТЕРСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ И НАУКИ РОССИЙСКОЙ ФЕДЕРАЦИИ Федеральное государственное бюджетное образовательное учреждение высшего образования «Алтайский государственный педагогический университет» (ФГБОУ ВО «АлтГПУ») The Outline of English Literature Учебно-методическое пособие Барнаул ФГБОУ ВО «АлтГПУ» 2018 Об издании - 1, 2, 3. �Содержание УДК 821(091)(420)(075) ББК 83.3(4Вел)я73 О-93 The Outline of English Literature [Электронный ресурс] : учебно-методическое пособие / сост. Л. Л. Шевченко, И. Ю. Кочешкова, – Барнаул : АлтГПУ, 2018. – Систем. требования: PC не ниже класса Intel Celeron 2 ГГц ; 512 Мb RAM ; Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 ; Adobe Acrobat Reader ; SVGA монитор с разрешением 1024х768 ; мышь. Рецензент: Шляхова М.М., кандидат филологических наук, доцент Алтайского государственного педагогического университета В пособии предлагается материал для подготовки и проведения практических занятий по дисциплинам «История литературы страны изучаемого языка», «История литературы Великобритании». Теоретический материал охватывает основные периоды английской литературы с древних времен по XX век и включает сведения о направлениях в развитии литературных жанров, авторах и их произведениях. Пособие содержит вопросы для семинарских занятий, глоссарий изучаемых литературоведческих и культурологических понятий, список художественной литературы для самостоятельного чтения. Учебно-методическое пособие предназначено для студентов, обучающихся по направлению «Лингвистика», профиль «Перевод и переводоведение» и «Педагогическое образование», профиль «Английский язык» по очно-заочной и заочной форме обучения. Рекомендовано к изданию редакционно-издательским советом АлтГПУ 29.03.2018 г. Текстовое (символьное) электронное издание. Системные требования: PC не ниже класса Intel Celeron 2 ГГц ; 512 Мb RAM ; Windows XP/Vista/7/8/10 ; Adobe Acrobat Reader ; SVGA монитор с разрешением 1024х768 ; мышь. Об издании - 1, 2, 3. �Содержание Электронное издание создано при использовании программного обеспечения Sunrav BookOffice. Объём издания – 1 080 КБ. Дата подписания к использованию: 18.06.2018 Федеральное государственное бюджетное образовательное учреждение высшего образования «Алтайский государственный педагогический университет» (ФГБОУ ВО «АлтГПУ») ул. Молодежная, 55, г. Барнаул, 656031 Тел. (385-2) 36-82-71, факс (385-2) 24-18-72 е-mail: rector@altspu.ru, http://www.altspu.ru Об издании - 1, 2, 3. �Содержание Contents Introduction Section 1. The Outline of English Literature. Anglo-Saxon Literature. English Literature in the Middle Ages English Literature in the Time of Renaissance and in the Time of Puritan Revolution and Restoration English Literature in the Enlightenment Period English Romanticism English Literature in the Victorian Period English Literature of the 20th Century Section 2. Seminars Seminar 1. Anglo-Saxon Literature. English Literature in the Middle Ages Seminar 2. Renaissance Poetry and Prose Seminar 3. Renaissance Drama Seminar 4. English Literature in the 17-18th centuries (Enlightenment) Seminar 5. Romantic Poetry and Prose Seminar 6. Victorian Poetry and Prose Seminar 7. The 20th century. Modernism Glossary of Literary Terms Reading List Selected Bibliography �Содержание Introduction There are many reasons to study literature. Alongside with other forms of art literature participates in the mighty task of rendering people’s lives, minds and hearts. Human experience contained in the works of literature is a vast continuum of information from which we can benefit in various ways. We read books for educational purposes, intellectual training, escape and enjoyment. We also read books because they can help us better understand what we are. For centuries people have accumulated and verified knowledge of human, the best works of literature being the quintessence of all intellectual and spiritual achievements of their time. Studying History of Literature we can observe culture in progress. Referring every single literary work to a particular epoch we can interpret its message in a broader context of human evolution. We can observe the development of literary forms against the historical, social, ideological, religious and all other kinds of changes. History and literature are inextricably intertwined. History is about people who were products of their time with their own value systems. Study of literature enhances our appreciation of history’s complexity, which in turn expands our appreciation of present political, social and cultural complexities and better equips us to predict and prepare for the future. This book offers a brief overview of the English literature from the Anglo-Saxon period till the 20th century. The periods of English literature are presented chronologically. The general framework of each part in Section 1 follows a similar pattern. It includes an outline of historical, cultural and literary context, information on authors’ life and work, contents of their major books. Section 2 gives Seminar questions (those marked with asterisk are meant for individual study) and topics for presentations. It is followed by the Glossary of literary terms and the Reading list. It is highly recommended to read all the suggested books before the beginning of the course. �Содержание Glossary of Literary Terms Allegory is a representation of an abstract or spiritual meaning through concrete or material forms; figurative treatment of one subject under the guise of another; a symbolical narrative (E.g. Piers Plowman). Alliteration (also known as “head rhyme” or “initial rhyme”), the repetition of the same sounds – usually initial consonants of words or of stressed syllables – in any sequence of neighbouring words. Now an optional and incidental decorative effect in verse or prose, it was once a required element in the poetry of Germanic languages. Such poetry, in which alliteration rather than rhyme is the chief principle of repetition, is known as alliterative verse. Ballad (Latin: ballare – to dance) is a songlike poem that was a popular verse form in the Middle Ages. Blank verse is unrhymed poems. Chivalric Romance is a type of prose and verse narrative that recounts the deeds of knights, ladies, and noble families seeking honor, love, and adventure. The genre was popular in the aristocratic circles of Medieval Europe. Comedy of Manners is a play satirising society’s manners. The Restoration comedy of manners reflected the life of the Court, which was portrayed as being immoral, corrupt, shameless but also elegant, witty and intelligent. Its main targets of criticism were middle-class values, conventions, hypocrisy and above all the institution of marriage. Elegy (elegiac poem) is a mournful poem, typically a lament for the dead. Epic is a lengthy narrative poem, ordinarily concerning a serioussubject containing details of heroic deeds and events significant to a culture or nation. Epigram is a brief poem praising or making fun of either real or fictitious person. Epistolary novel is a novel written as a series of documents. The usual form is letters, although diary entries, newspaper clippings and other documents are sometimes used. Recently, electronic “documents” such as recordings and radio, blogs, and e-mails have also come into use. The epistolary form can add greater realism to a story. Epitaph is a brief poem on a dead person. Essay is a short literary composition on a particular theme or subject, usually in prose and generally analytic, speculative, or interpretative. Fables are usually short narratives making an edifying or cautionary point and often employing as characters animals that speak and act like humans. Fabliaux (singular: Fabliau) were funny metrical poems, full of indecent jokes, about cunning humbugs, silly old merchants and their unfaithful wives. Together with fables fabliaux represented the literature of the town which did not idealize characters as romances did. Foot is the basic unit of metre which consists of one stressed syllable and one or more unstressed syllables. Heroic tragedy is a type of play popular during the Restoration era. Like a heroic poem or an epic, it is generally built around a hero, a king, prince, or an army general, who faces the conflict placed between love and honour. Heroic tragedy is composed in heroic verse (closed couplets in iambic pentameter). Kenning is a type of literary trope, specifically circumlocution, in the form of a compound (usually two words, often hyphenated) that employs figurative language in place of a more concrete single-word noun. Kennings are strongly associated with Old Norse and later Icelandic and Anglo-Saxon poetry. Metre is the regular arrangement of stressed and unstressed syllables. �Содержание Modernism is the deliberate departure from tradition and the use of innovative forms of expression that distinguish many styles in the arts and literature of the 1900s. Neoclassicism is the name given to Western movements in the decorative and visual arts, literature, theatre, music, and architecture that draw inspiration from the “classical” art and culture of Ancient Greece or Ancient Rome. The main Neoclassical movement coincided with the 18th century Age of Enlightenment. Pamphlet is an unbound booklet (i.e. without a hard cover or binding). During the 17–18th centuries religious dogma and political issues were publicly debated in the form of pamphlets. Pastoral poetry and prose speaks of light loves and labors of shepherds in idyllic country settings. Picaresque novel (Spanish: “picaresca”, from “pícaro”, for “rogue” or “rascal”) is a genre of prose fiction which depicts the adventures of a low social class hero, often criminal or dishonest, who lives by his wits in a corrupt society. This style of novel originated in 16th century Spain and flourished throughout Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries. Refrain is a phrase, verse, or group of verses repeated at intervals throughout a song or poem, especially at the end of each stanza. Satire is a literary composition, in verse or prose, in which human folly and vice are held up to scorn, derision, or ridicule. Scop – was an Anglo-Saxon poet who was appointed by the early Germanic kings or soldiers to entertain them by reciting poetry to the accompaniment of a harp or another stringed instrument. From the Old English word “scieppan”, scop means “to create, form or shape”. Sonnet is a lyric poems that is 14 lines long falling into three quatrains and a concluding couplet. Tone is a literary technique that encompasses the attitudes toward the subject and toward the audience implied in a literary work. Tone may be formal, informal, intimate, solemn, somber, playful, serious, ironic, condescending, or many other possible attitudes. Treatise is a formal and systematic exposition in writing of the principles of a subject, generally longer and more detailed than an essay. Troubadours (English: minstrels) were a class of musicians and poets who wrote poems and music about chivalry and love. They were medieval traveling entertainers who would sing and recite poetry to make a living. Utopia is a community or society possessing highly desirable or near perfect qualities. The term is also used to describe imagined societies portrayed in fiction. �Содержание Reading List Poetry and drama: 1. Geoffrey Chaucer. The Canterbury Tales. 2. Английские и шотландские баллады / Пер. С. Маршака; Ред. Н.Г. Елиной, В.М. Жирмунского. 3. William Shakespeare. • Sonnets 18, 29, 44, 55, 106, 116, 130, 132, 137, 139, 141, 143, 146, 147. • Plays: Hamlet; Romeo and Juliet; Othello; Macbeth; Taming of the Shrew. 4. Robert Burns: selected poems. 5. William Wordsworth: selected poems. 6. Samuel Coleridge. The Rime of the Ancient Mariner. 7. George Byron. Child Harold’s Pilgrimage; Don Juan. 8. Percy Bysshe Shelley. Poems: Ode to the West Wind; To a Skylark; The Cloud; Song to the Men of England. 9. Alfred Tennyson: selected poems. 10. Oscar Wilde. The Importance of Being Earnest. 11. George Bernard Shaw. Pygmalion; Heartbreak House. Prose 1. Daniel Defoe. Robinson Crusoe; The Fortunes and Misfortunes of the Famous Moll Flanders. 2. Jonathan Swift. Gulliver’s Travels. 3. Walter Scott. Ivanhoe. 4. Jane Austen. Pride and Prejudice. 5. Charles Dickens. Oliver Twist; Dombey and Son. 6. William Makepeace Thackeray. Vanity Fair. 7. Charlotte Bronte. Jane Eyre. 8. Emily Bronte. Wuthering Heights. 9. Thomas Hardy. Tess of the D’Urbervilles. 10. Robert Louis Stevenson. The strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde. 11. Lewis Carol. Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland. 12. Herbert Wells. The Invisible Man; The Time Machine. 13. Aldous Huxley. Brave New World. 14. William Golding. Lord of the Flies. �Содержание Selected Bibliography 1. Английская и американская литература = English & American Literature : учебное пособие на английском языке / авт.-сост. Н. Л. Утевская. – Изд. 2-е, испр. – Санкт-Петербург : Антология, 2012. – 400 с. 2. Броуди, К. Обзор английской и американской литературы = Focus on English and American Literature: учебное пособие для учащихся старших классов школ, лицеев, гимназий, студентов вузов / К. Броуди, Ф. Малгаретти. – Москва : Айрис-пресс, 2003. – 399 с. 3. Шевченко, Л. Л. History of English Literature (from Anglo-Saxons to the Age of Reason) [Электронный ресурс] : учебное пособие / Л. Л. Шевченко ; Алтайский государственный педагогический университет. – Барнаул : АлтГПУ, 2015. – 198 с. – Электрон. версия печ. публ. – URL: http://library.altspu.ru/dc/pdf/ shevchenko.pdf. 4. Шевченко, Л. Л. History of English Literature (from Romanticism to Modern Period) [Электронный ресурс] : учебное пособие / Л. Л. Шевченко. – Барнаул : АлтГПУ, 2016. – 236 с. – Электрон. версия печ. публ. – URL: http://library.altspu.ru/dc/pdf/shevchenko1.pdf. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Шевченко, Людмила Леонидовна Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Outline of English Literature Subject The topic of the resource 1. Литературоведение. 2. Литература Европы — Великобритания. 3. английская литература. 4. история литературы. 5. английские писатели. 6. литературные жанры. Description An account of the resource The Outline of English Literature [Электронный ресурс] : учебно-методическое пособие / Алтайский государственный педагогический университет ; [сост. Л. Л. Шевченко, И. Ю. Кочешкова]. — Барнаул : АлтГПУ, 2018. — 88 с. — Дата подписания к использованию: 18.06.2018. В пособии предлагается материал для подготовки и проведения практических занятий по дисциплинам «История литературы страны изучаемого языка», «История литературы Великобритании». Теоретический материал охватывает основные периоды английской литературы с древних времен по XX век и включает сведения о направлениях в развитии литературных жанров, авторах и их произведениях. Пособие содержит вопросы для семинарских занятий, глоссарий изучаемых литературоведческих и культурологических понятий, список художественной литературы для самостоятельного чтения. Учебно-методическое пособие предназначено для студентов, обучающихся по направлению «Лингвистика», профиль «Перевод и переводоведение» и «Педагогическое образование», профиль «Английский язык» по очно-заочной и заочной форме обучения. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource <em>Составители:</em><br />Шевченко, Людмила Леонидовна<br />Кочешкова, Ирина Юрьевна Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Алтайский государственный педагогический университет, 2018 Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Алтайский государственный педагогический университет Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 18.06.2018 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource ©Алтайский государственный педагогический университет, 2018 Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource pdf, exe Language A language of the resource русский Type The nature or genre of the resource Учебно-методическое пособие Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context &lt;URL:<a href="http://library.altspu.ru/dc/pdf/shevchenko2.pdf" target="_blank">http://library.altspu.ru/dc/pdf/shevchenko2.pdf</a>&gt;<br /> &lt;URL:<a href="http://library.altspu.ru/dc/exe/shevchenko2.exe" target="_blank">http://library.altspu.ru/dc/exe/shevchenko2.exe</a>&gt; английская литература английские писатели история литературы Литература Европы литературные жанры Литературоведение